UC-NRLF 


IN  THEIR 
HOMES 


g    ..... 


L.IBRARV 

OK  THK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

OK 

ll.   &. 


Received 

" 


Accession  No.    ^-       ^-L    •    Cla&s  No.  -r\ 


YUCCA    WHIPPLEI. 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS 

IN    THEIR    HOMES 


A  BOTANICAL  READER 

TOR  CHILDREN 

BY 

ALICE    MERR1TT    DAVIDSON 

Formerly  Teacher  of  Botany  in  the  State  Normal  School, 
Los  Angeles,  California. 


IVERSITY 


•    -i-iJ.lfc3.LJ.    J.        I 


ILLUSTRATED 

BY 

ALICE   C.  COOPER 

AND 

MARY   E.  LEWIS 


1898 
B.  R.  BAUMGARDT  &  CO 

Los  ANGELES,  CAL. 


COPYRIGHT,  1898 

BY 
ALICE    MERRITT    DAVIDSON 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 10 

PREFACE 13 

CHAPTER  1 17 

Some  Plants  that  lead  Easy  Lives. 
CHAPTER  II 25 

How  Some  Plants  begin  Life :    Seedlings. 
CHAPTER  III 39 

Plants  that  know  how  to  meet  Hard  Times  :    Autumn  Plants. 
CHAPTER  IV 51 

Some  Plants  that  do  not  make  their  own  Living  :     Fungi. 
CHAPTER  V 61 

After  the  Rains  :     Winter  Plants. 
CHAPTER  VI 72 

Ferns  and  their  Relatives. 
CHAPTER  VII 85 

Some  Early  Flowers. 
CHAPTER  VIII 100 

The  Awakening  of  the  Trees. 
CHAPTER  IX no 

Some  Spring  Flowers. 
CHAPTER  X 126 

Plants  with    Mechanical  Genius  :     Lupine,  Alfalfa   and   Fil- 

aree. 
CHAPTER  XI  138 

Plants  of  High  Rank  :    Bilabiate  Flowers. 
CHAPTER  XII 151 

Social  Flowers :    Composite. 
CHAPTER  XIII 160 

Plant  Families  :     Part  I.     Endogens  or  Monocotyledons. 
CHAPTER  XIV . 172 

Plant  Families  :     Part  II.     Exogens  or  Dicotyledons. 
CHAPTER  XV 183 

Some  Summer  Flowers. 
CHAPTER  XVI 200 

Weeds. 

Errata 212 

Books  of  Reference 213 

Pronunciation  of  Botanical  Names 215 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Water-net — Hydrodictyon 18 

2.  A  Brown  Alga,  or  Kelp — Macrocystis 20 

3.  A  Red  Alga — Plocamium  coccineum 23 

4.  Some  Green  Algae 23 

5.  Castor-oil  Plant — Ricinus,  Germination  of  Seed 26 

6.  Germination  of  Pine  Seed 28 

7.  Germination  of  Some  Common  Dicotyledonous  Seeds 30 

8.  Germination  of  Acorn 31 

9.  Germination  of  Some  Monocotyledenous  Seeds 35 

10.  Castor-oil  Plant,  Cellular  Structure 36 

11.  Wild  Broom — Lotus  glaber 45 

12.  Eriogonum  elongatum 45 

13.  A  Summer  Composite — Malacothrix  tenuifolia 46 

14.  Turkey -weed — Eremocarpus  setigera 47 

15.  Plants  of  the  Dry  Season 40 

16.  Plant  Hairs  under  the  Microscope 50 

17.  Mould 53 

18.  Lichens 55 

19.  Some  Common  Fungi  58 

20.  Early  Seedlings 62 

21.  Seedlings  spread  out  to  the  Sun  63 

22.  Early  Growth  from  Underground  Storehouses 65 

23.  Chilicothe — Micrampelis  macrocarpa 67 

24.  Wild  Currant — Ribes  glutinosum 69 

25.  Wild  Gooseberry — Ribes  amarum 70 

26.  Polypodium  Californicum 73 

27.  Some  Early  Fern  Fronds 76 

28.  Fragments  of  Spore-bearing  Fronds 78 

29.  Scouring  Rush,  or  Horsetail — Equisetum 82 

30.  Young  Ferns  and  Liverworts 83 

31.  Peony — Ptzonia   Californica 86 

32.  Buttercup — Ranunculus  Californicus 88 


ILL  USTRA  TIONS. 

33.  Cluster  Lily — Brodi&a  Capitata 91 

34.  Violet — Viola  pedunculata 94 

35.  Shooting  Star — Dodecatheon  Clevelandi 96 

36.  Calla 98 

37.  Willow , loi 

38.  Young  Shoots  of  Trees 103 

39.  Peach  Blossoms io.s 

40.  Pine  and  Cypress 106 

41.  Poppy  and  Cream-cup. in 

42.  Primrose — CEnothera  bistorta 113 

43.  Gilias 115 

44.  The  Climbing  Nemophila — Nemophila  aurita 117 

45.  Some  Members  of  the  Blue-Byes  Family 118 

46.  White  Forget-me-not — Plagiobothrys  nothofulvus 120 

47.  Nightshade — Solatium  Douglasii 122 

48.  Mariposas , 124 

49.  Lupine — Lupinus  sparsiflorus 127 

50.  Alfalfa  and  Bur-Clover 130 

51.  Filaree — Erodium  cicutarium ^134 

52.  Monkey-Flower — Mimulus  glutinosus 139 

53.  Innocence — Collinsia  bicolor 141 

54.  Owl's  Clover  and  Painted  Cup 143 

55.  Violet  Pentstemon — Pentstemon  heterophyllus 145 

56.  Little  Chia — Salvia  Columbaria 147 

57.  Sages — Audibertia  stachyoides  and  A.  polystachya 149 

58.  Sunflower — Helianthus  annuus 152 

59.  Thistle — Cnicus  occidentalis 156 

60.  An  Umbellifera — Peucedanum  utriculatum 158 

61.  Blue-Byed  Grass — Sisyrinchium  bellum 165 

62.  Yucca — Yucca   Whipplei.    (See  also  Frontispiece) 167 

63.  Wild  Oats — Avena  fatua 169 

64.  Yerba  Mansa — Anemopsis   Californica 173 

65.  Larkspur — Delphinium  Parryi 185 

66.  Milkweed — Asclepias  eriocarpa 188 

67.  Cactus — Opuntia  Lindheimeri,  var.  occidentalis 190 

68.  Dodder  on  Eriogonmn  fasciculatum 192 

69.  Godetia  Bottcs  and  Clarkia  elegans 195 

70.  Indian  Pink — Silene  laciniata 195 

71.  Climbing  Pentstemon — Pentstemon  cordifolius 196 

72.  Pasture  Weeds 206 

73.  Wayside  Weeds 209 

For  alphabetical  list,  see  index. 


PREFACE. 


The  aim  of  this  book  is  to  foster  children's  love  for  na- 
ture and  for  out  of  door  life  by  stimulating  their  interest  in 
living  plants,  and  by  leading  them  to  study  the  habits  of 
their  plant  neighbors.  Out  of  door  life  is  possible  in  Cali- 
fornia all  the  year  round,  but  to  avail  one's  self  fully  of  this 
great  panacea  for  mental  and  physical  ills,  one  must  have 
capacity  for  enjoying  it.  There  is  no  stronger  incentive  to 
this  sort  of  recreation  than  genuine  enthusiasm  for  some 
branch  of  nature  study.  No  one  who  has  gone  into  the 
fields  with  children,  doubts  their  readiness  to  acquire  this 
resource,  but  there  must  be  guidance  that  leads  to  keener 
observation,  to  a  growing  acquaintance  with  nature  and  a 
deepening  interest  in  her  ways.  A  book  can  hardly  meet 
the  full  requirements  of  a  guide,  but  supplemented  by  the 
direction  and  sympathy  of  parent  or  teacher,  it  may  be  of 
much  service. 

Of  course  these  "plants  in  their  homes,"  should  be 
under  the  actual  observation  of  the  children.  The  only 
plants  treated  at  all  fully  are  such  as  the  author  has  found 
easily  accessible  in  Southern  California,  and  most  of  them 
are  common  throughout  the  state.  That  the  study  of  some 
of  them  necessitates  special  excursions  to  canon  or  hillside, 
is  no  objection.  The  greater  number,  however,  are  the 
plants  we  meet  without  leaving  beaten  paths;  the  filaree 
and  bur-clover,  for  instance,  serve  often  for  illustration,  and 


PREFACE 

our  common  weeds  have  a  chapter  to  themselves.  The  aim 
is  to  awaken  interest  in  common  plants,  and  to  invest  them 
with  new  meaning.  Pond-scums,  mould  and  toad-stools 
are  included  among  these  familiar  plants,  and  sea-mosses, 
lichens  and  ferns  are  believed  to  be  as  attractive  as  flower- 
ing plants.  Much  concerning  the  lives  and  habits  of  these 
lower  plants  can  be  learned  without  a  microscope,  but  the 
results  of  microscopic  study  of  these  and  of  higher  plants 
are  not  ignored  in  the  Reader. 

The  book  attempts  to  introduce  children  to  a  wide  cir- 
cle of  plants.  Entire,  living  plants  are  considered,  and 
leading  facts  concerning  their  physiology  and  their  rela- 
tions to  their  environment  are  pointed  out.  A  detailed 
study  of  the  structure  of  plant  fragments  is  not  suggested. 
The  value  of  rigorous  laboratory  training  to  mature  minds 
is  undeniable,  but  experience  seems  to  prove  that  the  meth- 
ods of  a  college  laboratory  are  not  suited  to  children.  In 
plant  study  children  can  be  led  to  see  and  seek  and  think 
for  themselves,  but  their  natural  interest  is  in  salient  fea- 
tures not  in  minute  details,  and  their  curiosity  is  concerning 
uses,  not  structure. 

In  California,  parents  and  teachers  who  would  gladly 
undertake  rational  plant  study  with  their  children,  are  con- 
fronted by  our  peculiar  climatic  conditions,  which  render 
the  courses  of  study  and  the  plant  literature  of  other  regions 
ill  adapted  to  our  needs.  It  is  in  response  to  many  expres- 
sions of  need  for  some  literature  of  our  own  in  this  line, 
that  this  book  has  been  undertaken.  It  records  observa- 
tions made  during  ten  years  of  much  out  of  door  life  in 
Southern  California.  They  are  offered,  not  for  the  sake  of 
any  definite  results  obtained,  but  for  the  purpose  of  stimu- 
lating like  observations  and  for  comparison.  Much  auxil- 
iary matter,  directions,  definitions,  physiological  facts  and 
theories,  and  the  like,  must  accompany  observation  work 
to  render  it  intelligible.  In  school  work  this  matter  must 


PREFACE 

be  dictated  or  written  by  the  teacher.  The  Reader  is  de- 
signed to  save  this  labor,  that  is,  to  supplement  observation 
work,  but  by  no  means  to  supplant  it. 

The  Supplement  to  the  Reader  has  been  written  with 
the  needs  of  teachers  in  mind.  It  contains  many  additional 
details;  the  plants  are  described  more  fully  and  their  botan- 
ical names  are  given.  Such  facts  of  structural  and  physio- 
logical botany  as  the  writer  has  found  specially  useful 
during  considerable  experience  in  teaching,  have  been  in- 
serted. In  an  appendix,  suggestions  for  the  use  of  the 
Reader  in  the  school-room  are  offered,  and  a  course  of 
plant  study  for  California  school  children  is  outlined.  A 
short  list  of  available  botanical  works  is  also  given. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  book,  the  usual  botanical 
authorities  have  been  consulted.  Kerner's  "  Natural  His- 
tory of  Plants  ' '  has  suggested  and  inspired  investigation 
along  various  lines.  Direct  assistance  in  every  way  has  been 
given  by  the  writer's  husband,  Dr.  Anstruther  Davidson. 
Many  thanks  are  due  to  Miss  Harriet  E.  Dunn  for  aid 
in  revising  the  manuscript  and  to  Mrs.  J.  Crossley  Neilson 
and  Prof.  Everett  Shepardson  for  assistance  in  proof  read- 
ing. The  drawings,  nearly  all  of  them  from  nature,  have 
been  contributed  by  former  pupils  in  the  Normal  School  at 
lyOS  Angeles,  most  of  them  being  the  work  of  Miss  Cooper 
and  Miss  Lewis.  Miss  Ada  M.  Laughlin,  teacher  of 
drawing  in  the  same  school,  has  been  most  helpful. 


FOOT  NOTE. — It  has  not  generally  been  practicable  to 
reproduce  the  drawings  natural  size,  or  to  an  exact  scale. 
Most  of  the  flowering  plants  are  reduced  about  one-fourth. 
The  number  of  times  magnified  is  indicated  by  the  sign,  x. 


CHAPTER  I. 


SOflE  PLANTS  THAT  LEAD  EASY  LIVES. 

There  is  a  story  told  of  a  very  lazy  boy  who  lived  in  a 
beautiful  sunny  garden.  The  garden  was  full  of  trees  that 
bore  delicious  fruit,  but  to  gather  this  fruit  was  quite  too 
much  trouble  for  the  lazy  boy  ;  so  he  spent  his  days  lying 
under  the  trees  where,  when  he  was  hungry,  he  had  only 
to  open  his  mouth  and  the  fruit  dropped  into  it.  Now 
there  are  plants  the  world  over  that  seem  to  live  about  as 
easily  as  the  lazy  boy ;  I  mean  plants  that  live  in  the  water, 
for  their  food  consists  only  of  water  and  what  is  dissolved  in 
it ;  so  they  lie  in  a  bath  containing  their  food  and  have 
only  to  absorb  what  they  need. 

Nearly  all  California  children  have  noticed  in  reser- 
voirs, water  ditches  or  ponds,  a  green  scum  floating  along 
the  edges  or  on  the  top.  Perhaps  you  have  not  looked  at  it 
very  closely,  nor  thought  of  it  as  made  up  of  little  plants. 
Take  some  of  it  now,  put  it  in  water  in  a  white  dish,  and 
examine  it  carefully.  Perhaps  all  of  it  will  be  soft  and 
slimy,  but  you  are  likely  to  find  some  that  clearly  consists 
of  threads  or  nets. 

The  green  net  is  called  water-net.  If  you  have  found 
good  specimens  you  will  see  that  the  nets  are  really  little 
closed  bags,  perhaps  like  drawing  No.  i,  Fig.  i,  or  they 
may  be  more  slender.  Sometimes  the  bags  are  several 
inches  long,  and  the  nets  coarse,  that  is,  the  holes  or 

2  17 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN   THEIR  HOMES 
'• 


Fig.  1.    WATER-NET— Hydyodictyon. 
\.  Colony,  x  5.    2.  Tip  of  net,  x  15.    3.  Single  mesh,  x  40. 


I.  One  cell,  x  75. 


meshes  are  large;  but  the  large  nets  are  easily  torn,  and 
are  likely  to  be  found  in  ragged  bits.  There  are  usually 
plenty  of  smaller  nets  ;  if  you  have  sharp  eyes  you  may 
find  some  not  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long. 
Drawing  No.  2  is  one  end  of  one  of  these  tiny  nets  as  it 
looks  under  the  microscope,  and  No.  3  is  one  of  the  meshes 
still  more  enlarged.  Take  the  coarsest  net  you  have,  and 
find  out  how  many  sides  the  meshes  have.  How  long  is 
the  longest  side  you  can  find  ? 

No.  4  is  a  drawing  of  one  side  of  a  mesh  under  the 
microscope.  So  we  see  that  each  side  of  any  mesh  is  itself 
a  little  closed  bag  or  sac  filled  with  something.  This  sac 
with  its  contents  is  called  a  cell;  the  sac  is  transparent,  and 
is  called  the  cell  wall.  The  jelly-like  substance  within 
seems  to  be  green,  and  there  are  grains  in  it,  some  very 
small,  others  larger.  After  water-net  has  been  kept  in 
alcohol  for  a  day  or  so,  the  alcohol  becomes  green  and  the 
net  is  left  colorless,  but  otherwise  the  cells  look  just  as  they 
did  before.  This  coloring  matter,  which  is  dissolved  by 
the  alcohol,  is  a  very  important  part  of  plants,  so  important 

18 


that  it  is  best  to  learn  at  once  the  long  name  the  botanists 
have  given  it;  it  is  called  chlorophyll.  The  jelly-like 
granular  substance  that  still  lies  close  to  the  cell  wall  is 
another  very  wonderful  substance  ;  it  is  present  in  every 
living  part  of  every  plant  and  animal  ;  in  your  own  bodies 
as  well ;  it  is  called  protoplasm. 

Now  put  some  of  your  water-net  in  a  dish  of  water  in 
the  sun.  In  a  short  time  you  will  see  little  bubbles  all 
about  it.  If  you  found  the  net  yourself,  growing  in  a  sunny 
place,  you  probably  noticed  that  there  were  so  many 
bubbles  entangled  with  it  that  the  whole  mass  looked  like 
green  froth.  It  is  possible  to  collect  the  bubbles  that  the 
net  gives  off,  and  to  find  out  that  they  are  bubbles  of 
oxygen,  a  gas  that  we  must  have  in  the  air  we  breathe,  in 
order  to  live  at  all. 

Dissolved  in  the  water,  is  another  gas  that  all  living 
things  are  constantly  breathing  out ;  it  is  called  carbonic 
acid  gas.  This  gas  is  the  most  important  food  material  for 
plants,  and  these  little  water  plants  are  drinking  it  in  with 
the  water  all  day  long.  Now  the  cells  of  the  plants  are 
little  work-shops  or  laboratories.  The  materials  used  are 
water  and  carbonic  acid.  Each  of  these  materials  consists 
of  oxygen  united  with  something  else,  and  in  every  cell  the 
protoplasm,  with  the  help  of  chlorophyll  and  sunlight, 
breaks  up  this  raw  material,  uses  what  it  needs  to  make  its 
food,  and  gives  off  the  oxygen  that  is  left  over  into  the  air 
for  us  and  for  animals  generally.  The  food  that  the  cell 
manufactures  is  called  organic  matter  ;  it  is  food  for  animals 
as  well  as  for  plants.  The  water-net  uses  some  of  it  at 
once  for  its  own  growth,  but  some  of  it  is  stored  for  future 
use  in  the  form  of  starch.  In  the  picture  of  the  cell,  the 
larger  dots  represent  little  stores  of  starch. 

When  little  water-nets  grow  up,  that  is,  when  each 
cell  becomes  as  large  as  it  can  be,  what  do  you  suppose 
happens  next?  If  there  is  plenty  of  food,  the  protoplasm 

19 


CALIFORNIA   PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


Fig.  2.     A  BROWN  ALGA,  or  KELP— CMacrocystis. 
1.  Tip  of  branch,  %  natural  size,    2.  Holdfast  of  small  plant. 

20 


in  any  cell  may  divide  into  very  many  minute  particles, 
into  from  seven  thousand  to  twenty  thousand  the  botanists 
tell  us.  Now  each  bit  of  protoplasm,  which  may  be  called 
a  protoplast,  is  able  to  do  a  wonderful  thing;  it  can  make 
a  room  for  itself  just  as  a  snail  can  make  its  own  house. 
So  all  these  seven  thousand  or  more  protoplasts  enclose 
themselves  in  transparent  walls,  and  the  old  cell  wall  ha.s 
within  it  a  multitude  of  new  Cells.  Can  you  guess  the  rest 
of  the  story?  The  tiny  new  cells  move  about,  arrange 
themselves  into  a  net,  and  grow  together  ;  the  old  cell  wall 
breaks,  and  the  tiny  new  net  floats  out  to  begin  life  by 
itself.  In  our  sunny  summer  days  the  pools  are  filled  up 
rapidly  with  new  nets  ;  but  since  our  rainless  season  is  so 
long,  the  pools  may  dry  up,  and  then  the  nets  must  die. 
Botanists  tell  us  that,  as  this  danger  approaches,  the  proto- 
plasts into  which  a  cell  divides,  escape  at  once  into  the 
water  and  swim  about  for  a  time ;  then  two  protoplasts 
from  different  cells  may  unite  to  form  a  cell  that  behaves 
like  a  seed  ;  that  is,  one  which  can  rest  a  long  time  and  can 
stand  drought  and  heat  or  cold  until  it  has  a  good  chance 
to  grow  into  a  new  plant. 

There  are  many  other  kinds  of  green  Algae,  as  these 
scums  are  called.  Some  of  them  are  very  beautiful  under 
the  microscope,  and  many  interesting  things  have  been 
found  out  about  them.  You  may  have  a  chance  to  study 
them  yourselves  in  higher  schools. 

In  the  ocean,  too,  are  plants  that  get  all  of  their  food  from 
the  water,  though  not  all  of  them  can  be  said  to  live  easy 
lives.  Often  they  grow  on  rocks  where  the  waves  are 
constantly  breaking.  Perhaps  you  can  imagine,  if  you  have 
been  in  the  surf  yourselves,  how  these  plants  are  pounded, 
tossed  and  twisted  by  the  breakers.  The  brown  Algae,  or 
rock  weeds  and  kelps,  are  the  most  common  plants  along 
the  shore.  Have  you  ever  noticed  how  they  are  fastened 
to  the  rocks  ?  No.  2,  Fig.  2,  is  a  drawing  of  one  kind  of 

21 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

holdfast.  Sometimes  the  holdfasts  are  very  large,  with 
many  branches.  You  may  have  seen  them  on  the  beach 
after  a  storm.  Some  are  solid  instead  of  branched.  If 
you  have  tried  to  pull  kelps  from  the  rocks  where  they  are 
growing,  you  know  that  these  holdfasts  rarely  let  go.  You 
must  either  scrape  them  off  with  a  knife  or  break  the  stem  ; 
and  how  tough  they  are  !  They  seem  almost  like  leather. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  they  can  stand  so  much  beating  by  the 
waves. 

One  kind  of  kelp  common  on  our  coast  is  called  Macro- 
cystis.  No.  i,  Fig.  2,  is  a  reduced  drawing  of  one  end  of 
a  branch.  Plants  several  yards  long  are  frequently  washed 
up  on  our  beaches,  and  travelers  tell  us  that  some  plants 
grow  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long.  Children  often  strip  off  the 
leaves,  and  use  the  stems  for  skipping-ropes,  because  they 
are  so  strong  and  flexible.  The  leaves  of  this  kelp  are  full 
of  blisters,  and  at  the  base  of  each  leaf  is  a  pear-shaped  air 
sac.  Can  you  think  out  the  use  to  the  plant  of  the  blisters 
and  the  air  sacs?  Notice  how  the  new  leaves  start' at  the 
end  of  the  stem.  Do  leaves  of  land  plants  begin  in  that  way  ? 

Fig.  3  is  a  photograph  of  one  of  our  red  sea  mosses.  It 
is  often  thrown  up  on  the  beach  during  storms,  and  it  is 
still  very  pretty  after  it  has  been  floated  out  on  white  paper 
and  dried.  Most  bright  red  Algae  grow  in  rather  deep 
water,  and  so  do  not  get  as  much  light  as  plants  that  float 
near  the  surface.  The  red  color  changes  what  light  they 
get,  so  that  is  most  useful  to  the  plant  for  food-making. 

Of  course  the  ocean  plants  are  in  no  danger  from  lack 
of  water.  They  are  sometimes  badly  torn  by  storms,  but 
this  is  not  always  misfortune.  If  the  pieces  happen  to 
reach  a  favorable  place,  they  grow  fast  and  become  new 
plants.  There  are  crabs  that  seem  to  know  this  fact,  for 
they  cut  off  bits  of  sea  mosses  with  their  claws,  and  place 
them  on  little  hooks  on  their  shells.  The  plants  grow 
there,  and  hide  the  crabs  from  their  enemies. 

22 


ALGsE 


Fig.  3.     A  RED  A.'L.GA.—TIocamiiim  coccineum. 
Portion  of  frond,  natural  size. 


Fig.  4.      SOME   GREEN 
1.  Conjugating  filaments  of  Spirogyra.    2.  Fragment  of  filament  of  Spirogyra. 
3  and  4.  Zygnema.    5  and  6.  Cladophora.    5,  x  4,  others,  x  50. 


23 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

You  will,  perhaps,  think  that  these  sea  plants  have  no 
chlorophyll,  and  so  cannot  manufacture  food  as  the  water- 
net  does.  But  the  chlorophyll  is  there  in  plenty,  hidden  by 
the  brown  or  red  color.  You  can  see  this  for  yourselves  in 
pieces  that  have  been  faded  in  the  sun  on  the  beach,  or  in 
pieces  you  have  kept  in  fresh  water.  So  we  see  that 
although  water  plants  get  their  raw  material  easily,  the 
pretty  red  sea  mosses  and  the  big  kelps,  as  well  as  the  little 
water-net,  are  busy  all  day  long  making  up  this  material 
into  useful  food  substance,  at  the  same  time  setting  free 
oxygen  for  the  general  good.  Perhaps  it  was  not  quite  fair 
to  compare  them  with  the  lazy  boy. 


SEEDLINGS 


CHAPTER   II. 


HOW  SOME  PLANTS   BEGIN  LIFE. 

Plants  that  have  seeds  are  called  higher  plants,  because 
they  give  their  children,  the  seeds,  such  a  good  start  in  the 
world. 

Take  the  castor  bean  for-  an  example.  On  the  home 
plant,  each  seed  has  a  room  to  itself  in  the  little  ball  of  a 
house.  It  seems  quite  safe  in  the  strong  walls  defended 
by  stiff  little  prickles;  but  suddenly,  on  a  sunny  day,  the 
walls  of  the  little  room  split  open,  sometimes  with  such 
force  that  the  seed  is  flung  far  out  into  the  world .  For  a 
time  it  lies  on  the  ground  exposed,  as  one  might  think,  to 
many  dangers;  really  the  seed  is  protected  by  its  hard  coat, 
and  by  being  poisonous.  Soon,  too,  it  becomes  buried  in 
the  dust,  where  it  waits  with  other  seeds  for  the  rain  and 
sunshine  to  waken  it. 

Soak  some  castor  beans  in  water,  and  you  will  see  how 
the  little  knob  at  one  end  acts  like  a  sponge  in  taking  up 
water.  Plant  the  seeds,  and  in  a  week  or  so  a  little  white 
sprout  pushes  out  where  the  knob  was.  Do  you  think  this 
sprout  a  root  or  a  stem?  Really  it  is  both,  as  you  can  see 
by  watching,  for  the  root  grows  steadily  downward,  but 
the  stem  part  grows  upward  and  becomes  a  long,  narrow 
arch,  that  lifts  the  earth  above  it,  and  finally  breaks 
through.  Meanwhile  the  rest  of  the  seed  swells  and 
bursts  its  coat.  What  is  now  the  outside  part  is  a  white, 

25 


Fig.  5.    CASTOR-OII,  PLANT— Ricinus.    Germination  of  the  seed. 


SEEDLINGS 

oily  substance,  that  feels  and  cuts  a  little"^  like  cheese; 
within  this  are  two  pale  little  leaves  pressed  together. 
Now  take  an  unsprouted  seed,  and  see  if  you  can  find  these 
leaves  and  the  beginnings  of  the  stem  and  root  inside  the 
white  substance. 

Think  out  the  uses  of  this  white  substance.  At  first 
it  protects  the  baby  plant;  later,  by  swelling,  it  bursts  the 
coat;  but  watch  it  as  the  seedling  grows;  the  seed-leaves 
grow  larger  and  thicker,  but,  at  the  same  time,  this  sub- 
stance gets  thinner  and  thinner  until  it  is  a  mere  worthless 
film.  Clearly,  this  is  the  food  the  leaves  absorb  for  their 
own  growth  and  for  the  young  stem  and  roots. 

Be  sure  to  see  how  the  seed-leaves  escape  from  the  soil. 
For  some  time  only  the  little  arched  stem  appears  above 
ground.  The  roots  fasten  one  end  of  it  firmly  in  the  soil, 
so  that  as  it  grows,  it  must  be  always  pulling  at  the  buried 
leaves  at  the  other  end.  Finally  the  leaves  are  brought 
above  ground;  they  turn  green  and  unfold,  and  now, 
because  they  have  chlorophyll  and  light,  they  begin  food- 
making. 

But  let  us  look  into  the  history  of  a  few  more  seeds. 
High  up  in  the  pine  trees,  tucked  away  in  the  thick-walled 
chambers,  often  protected  by  savage  spines,  are  the  pine 
seeds.  The  trees  seem  very  unwilling  to  part  with  their 
children,  for  they  sometimes  keep  them  shut  up  in  these 
pine-cone  nurseries  for  several  years  before  they  have  done 
fitting  them  out  for  their  journey.  It  really  is  a  journey, 
for  when  the  cones  finally  open,  each  seed  has  a  wing  on 
which  it  is  carried  far  from  the  home  tree. 

Now  these  seeds  are  actually  in  danger,  for  the  food 
the  parent  tree  has  been  so  long  preparing  for  them  is  very 
good  for  animals  too.  Squirrels  are  so  eager  for  pine  seeds 
that  they  do  not  always  wait  to  find  them  on  the  ground, 
but  climb  the  trees,  and  actually  cut  through  the  thick, 
woody  walls  of  the  cones  with  their  sharp  teeth.  But  the 

27 


CALIFORNIA   PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


squirrels  bury  some  of  the  seeds  for  future  use,  and  if  they 
forget  where  they  have  hidden  them,  or  if  they  do  not  live 
to  eat  them,  the  pine 
seeds  are  well  planted . 
Some  of  our  moun- 
tain pines  have  large 
seeds  called  pine  nuts 
or  piflons.  These 
seeds  have  enemies 
with  hands  as  well  as 
enemies  with  sharp 
teeth.  They  are 
gathered  in  great 
quantities  by  the  In- 
dians for  winter  sup- 
plies; they  are  also 
sent  to  our  city  mar- 
kets. The  pinon  has 
a  hard  shell,  within 
which  an  abundance 
of  food  is  packed 
about  the  tiny  plant. 
You  will  think  at  first 
that  the  baby  plant 
has  only  a  stem,  but 
if  you  look  closely  you 
will  find  at  one  end  a 
cluster  of  very  short, 
thick,  white  seed- 
leaves,  which  can 
grow  into  little  green 
needles  like  other  pine 
leaves.  Pifions  grow 
so  very  slowly  that  it  is 
better  to  plant  smaller  pig.?.  GERMINATION  OF  PINE  SEED. 

28 


SEEDLINGS 

pine  seeds  that  will  come  above  ground,  and  look  like 
tiny  pine  trees,  in  a  month  or  so. 

The  sprouting  pine  seeds  behave,  in  many  respects, 
like  the  castor  beans,  but  the  swelling  food  does  not 
burst  the  seed  coat.  Instead  of  this,  the  coat  is  brought 
above  ground  by  the  growing,  arched  stem,  and  the  leaves 
remain  inside,  safe  and  warm,  until  they  have  absorbed  all 
the  food.  In  the  picture  you  can  see  one  way  they  have  of 
getting  rid  of  their  coat.  Your  seed-leaves  may  behave 
differently. 

There  are  many  common  seeds  that  you  can  grow  more 
quickly  than  the  pine  and  castor  bean,  such  as  the  morning 
glory,  common  bean,  squash,  pea,  peanut,  nasturtium,  corn, 
wheat  and  onion.  The  morning  glory  seed  has  the  baby 
plant  and  its  store  of  food  snugly  stored  away  in  the  small- 
est possible  space.  The  common  bean  has  a  different  plan 
for  storing  food;  as  you  remove  the  seed  coat,  you  see  that 
the  two  bodies  into  which  the  seed  separates  are  attached 
to  the  little  stem  instead  of  being  packed  about  it.  When 
these  bodies  are  dragged  into  the  light,  they  become  green, 
and  spread  out  from  the  stem,  like  leaves.  In  fact,  they  are 
the  seed-leaves  just  as  truly  as  were  the  thinner,  prettier 
leaves  of  the  castor  bean  and  morning  glory,  but  the  bean 
seed-leaves  have  the  food  which  they  furnish  to  the  grow- 
ing plant  stored  within  them  instead  of  about  them.  They 
use  none  of  this  food  for  their  own  growth,  but  as  their 
supplies  are  used  by  the  rest  of  the  seedling,  they  shrivel 
and  finally  drop  off.  By  this  time,  the  next  two  leaves, 
which  were  distinct  even  in  the  seed,  have  grown  into  good 
food-makers. 

The  two  seed-leaves  of  the  squash  also  have  their  food 
stored  inside,  but  they  use  part  of  it  for  themselves  and 
become  veiy  good  food-making,  or  foliage,  leaves.  Do  not 
miss  the  clever  trick  of  the  squash  leaves  by  which  they  get 
rid  of  the  hard  outside  coat  or  shell.  The  stem  grows  a 

29 


Fig.  7.— GERMINATION   OF  SOME    COMMON    DICOTYLEDONOUS   SEEDS. 
1.    Morning  glory.        2.    Pumpkin.        3.    Pea.        4.    Common  bean. 

30 


Fig.  8.— GERMINATION  OF  ACORN. 

31 


SEEDLINGS 

little  knob  that  pins 
down  one  side  of  the 
shell,  while  the  arching 
part  of  the  stem  pries  up 
the  other  side. 

The  pea  has  even 
thicker  seed-leaves  than 
the  bean,  but  they  do 
not  try  at  all  to  imitate 
foliage  leaves;  they  are 
content  to  be  simply 
store-houses  and  to 
remain  under  ground, 
where  they  are  really 
better  off.  This  leaves 
the  little  shoot  between 
them  to  push  up  through 
the  ground  alone.  Does 
it  push  straight  up,  or 
appear  first  as  an  arch? 
Which  of  these  seed- 
lings does  the  nastur- 
tium most  resemble  ? 

The  peanut  ?  Later 
in  the  season  keep  a 
sharp  lookout  for  acorns 
or  walnuts  that  have 
germinated  among  the 
fallen  leaves  under  the 
trees.  In  the  picture  of 
the  sprouting  acorn,  can 
you  point  out  the  seed- 
leaves  ? 

Should  you  like  to 
know  the  Greek  and 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

Latin  names  that  botanists  have  given  to  the  parts  of  seeds  ? 
Seed-leaves  are  called  cotyledons;  the  little  stem  in  the  seed 
is  the  caulicle;  the  beginning  root  at  one  end  of  it  is  the 
radicle;  the  little  bud  at  the  other  end,  plainly  seen  in  the 
bean,  pea  and  peanut,  is  called  the  plumule;  the  entire 
baby  plant  is  called  the  embryo;  when  food  is  stored  out- 
side of  the  embryo,  it  is  called  endosperm;  when  the  embryo 
begins  to  grow,  botanists  say  that  the  seed  is  germinating. 

The  parts  of  a  kernel  of  corn  are  not  easily  made  out. 
The  greater  part  of  the  kernel  is  hard  and  yellow;  it 
shrinks  as  the  seedling  grows,  and  is,  clearly,  the  store  of 
food.  Lying  closely  against  this  on  one  side  of  the  kernel 
is  a  paler,  softer  part,  and  this  part  is  wrapped  about  a  little 
white  rod.  When  the  seed  is  kept  in  water  for  a  day  or  so, 
you  can  see  that  this  softer  white  part  swells,  and  acts  like 
a  sponge;  that  is,  it  does  just  what  seed-leaves,  or  cotyle- 
dons, always  do,  it  absorbs  food  for  the  rest  of  the  seed -plant. 
So  we  must  consider  it  a  cotyledon,  although  it  does  not 
look  at  all  like  a  leaf,  and  it  always  remains  below  ground 
with  the  endosperm.  As  the  seed  germinates,  the  nature 
of  the  little  white  rod  is  soon  revealed.  The  upper  part 
shoots  upward,  and  is  seen  to  consist  of  rolled-up  leaves,  so 
it  should  be  called  the  plumule.  The  stem  part,  or  caulicle, 
to  which  the  cotyledon  is  fastened,  does  not  grow  rapidly, 
but  at  its  lower  end  the  radicle  lengthens  into  a  main  root; 
side  roots  are  also  sent  out.  Since  the  stem  does  not  grow 
up  into  an  arch,  the  plumule  must  push  straight  up  through 
the  soil,  but  the  outside  leaf  protects  the  rest,  and  does  not 
attempt  to  become  a  foliage  leaf  itself.  When  the  stem 
finally  comes  above  ground,  notice  the  circle  of  staying 
roots,  like  tent-ropes. 

The  onion  seed  is  very  small  to  study,  but  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  the  rolled-up  leaves  come  out  as  an  arch,  the  tips 
remaining  inside  the  shell,  while  the  roots  grow  from  the 
short  stem  at  the  base.  The  onion,  like  the  corn,  has  one 

32 


Fig.  9-GERMINATION  OF  SOME   MONOCOTYLEDONOUS   SEEDS. 
1.  Onion.    2.  Wheat,  x  5.    3.  Indian  corn. 


CALIFORNIA   PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

cotyledon,  which  is  wrapped  about  the  rest  of  the  embryo, 
and  it  is  a  cotyledon  of  many  uses.  It  protects  the  embryo, 
carries  it  out  of  the  shell,  plants  it  in  the  soil,  carries  it  food 
from  the  seed's  storehouse,  and  in  the  meantime  becomes  a 
good  foliage  leaf  itself.  Palm  seeds,  too,  have  single  coty- 
ledons which  plant  their  embryos  so  deep  that  they  are  in 
little  danger  from  drought.  One  palm  has  huge  seeds 
weighing  fifteen  pounds  or  more;  the  cotyledon  carries  the 
embryo  down  a  foot  and  a  half  in  the  soil,  and  feeds  it  there 
nearly  a  year  before  leaving  it  to  care  for  itself. 

As  the  rains  come,  keep  watch  for  seedlings  that  may 
spring  up  along  the  wayside  or  in  fields,  vacant  lots  or 
gardens.  See  if  they  first  appear  as  arches,  and  if  you  can 
find  the  seed-leaves.  As  the  plumules  unfold,  see  how 
many  of  the  plants  you  can  recognize. 

We  have  seen  how  seeds  are  prepared  to  begin  life  by 
the  parent  plants  ;  let  us  think  of  what. the  seedlings  do  for 
themselves.  While  the  little  plant  is  yet  entirely  within 
the  seed-coat,  it  drinks  in  water  from  the  outside  world, 
and  the  water  dissolves  this  stored  food,  and  helps  to 
change  some  of  it  so  that  it  can  be  used  for  growth.  As 
soon  as  the  first  white  shoot  pushes  out,  it  begins  to  fit 
itself  to  supply  water.  Watch  some  kernels  of  corn  germi- 
nate on  moist  blotting-paper.  The  tip  of  the  root  is  hard 
and  smooth,  but  back  of  the  tip,  the  root  is  covered  with 
dense  fuzz,  and  every  hair  of  this  fuzz  is  a  thin-walled  cell 
that  eagerly  drinks  in  all  the  water  it  can  get  from  the  moist 
air.  Roots  that  grow  in  the  soil  have  root-hairs  too,  but 
the  soil  clings  to  them  and  hides  them.  They  are  not 
usually  so  long  as  those  you  see  on  the  corn,  but  they  are 
sometimes  so  dense  that  the  head  of  a  common  pin  can 
cover  a  hundred  or  more. 

Now,  as  a  root  grows,  it  does  not  lengthen  everywhere 
as  you  do.  If  you  will  mark  a  corn  root  with  ink,  as  in  the 
picture,  you  will  see  that  only  the  part  just  back  of  the  tip 

34 


SEEDLINGS 

grows.  So  the  root-hairs  that  came  out  first  have  another 
use  ;  they  unite  their  part  of  the  root  firmly  with  the  soil, 
and  as  the  growing  part  lengthens,  it,  too,  sends  out  hairs 
to  anchor  it,  as  well  as  to  supply  water.  A  great  English 
naturalist,  Darwin,  found  out  some  wonderful  things  about 
the  sturdy  little  root- tips.  They  are  really  pioneers  and 
explorers,  for  they  have  the  power  of  moving  in  little 
circles  as  they  are  pushed  on  by  the  growing  part,  and  they 
are  also  sensitive  to  hard  substances  and  to  moisture ;  so 
they  are  actually  able  to  avoid  many  dangerous  or  difficult 
places,  and  to  pilot  the  growing  root  into  the  very  best 
places  for  moisture  and  food. 

Take  a  corn  seedling  that  has  been  growing  for  a 
month  or  so,  remove  it  from  the  soil  without  breaking  any 
of  the  roots,  if  possible,  and  measure  the  length  of  all  the 
roots  on  a  string.  Now  remember,  that  every  root  is 
clothed  with  root-hairs,  and  through  these  thousands  of 
absorbing  cells,  your  seedling  has  been  taking  in  water. 
With  the  water  enters  what  is  dissolved  in  it,  and  the  plants 
really  require  much  of  this  dissolved  matter.  The  gas, 
nitrogen,  which  is  necessary  for  making  protoplasm,  is 
prepared  in  the  soil  so  that  it  can  be  carried  up  the  plant 
by  the  water ;  the  soil  also  supplies  necessary  minerals, 
such  as  iron  and  sulphur. 

But  all  this  raw  material  must  be  worked  over  into 
organic  plant  food,  and,  as  we  learned  from  the  water-net, 
the  food-making  must  begin  where  there  is  chlorophyll  and 
sunlight,  that  is,  above  ground.  The  path  by  which  this 
raw  material  travels  up  to  the  workshops,  can  be  easily 
shown  by  putting  a  seedling  in  water  colored  with  red  ink. 
Soon  you  will  see  the  red  fluid  creeping  up  the  woody 
strands  or  veins  that  run  through  the  leaves.  By  cutting 
thin  slices  of  root  and  stem,  you  will  see  that  the  fluid  here, 
too,  ascends  through  woody  fibres.  You  remember  that  the 
water-net  was  made  up  of  cells.  So  are  all  plants.  The 

35 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

castor-oil  seedling,  for  instance,  is  really  a  community  of 
millions  of  protoplasts,  each  living  in  a  room  made  by 
itself.  To  see  this  you  must  have  very  thin  slices  of  the 
plant  under  the  microscope.  The  little  rooms  or  cells  are 
by  no  means  all  alike.  To  give  you  some  idea  of  what  the 
cells  of  the  stem  are  like,  two  slices,  one  crosswise  and  one 
lengthwise,  have  been  combined  in  drawing  No.  2,  Fig.  10, 


Fig.  10.     CASTOR-OIL  PI,ANT— Acinus. 
1.  Epidermis,  x  75.    2.  Cellular  structure  of  stem,  x  150.    (Diagramatic.) 

Some  cells,  you  see,  are  like  the  water-net  cells,  with  thin 
walls ;  others  are  much  more  slender  and  have  thicker 
walls  ;  others  are  very  long  and  have  curious  markings  on 
their  walls.  These  last  two  kinds  of  cells  make  up  woody 
fibre  like  those  colored  by  the  ink. 

No.  i,  in  the  same  drawing  is  the  skin,  or  epidermis,  of 
the  leaf  under  the  microscope.  Most  of  the  cells  are  thin 
and  flat,  and  fit  closely  together  like  tiles,  but  among  them 
are  pairs  of  cells  with  openings  between  them,  so  that  each 
pair  resembles  open  lips.  The  openings  are  called  pores,  or 


SEEDLINGS 

stomata,  and  their  two  guard  cells  can  close  together  when 
it  is  best  for  the  plant.  Very  little  water  can  pass  through 
the  outer  cell  walls  of  the  epidermis,  but  when  the  stomata 
are  open,  water  given  off  by  any  cells  within  the  leaf  can 
pass  through  the  stomata  into  the  air. 

Notice  that  the  upper  side  of  the  castor-oil  leaf  is  a 
darker  green  than  the  lower.  This  is  because  the  cells  here 
are  packed  very  closely  together,  and  also  because  they 
have  a  good  supply  of  chlorophyll.  The  sun  shines  directly 
on  them  during  the  warmest  part  of  the  day.  These  cells, 
then,  are  the  workshops,  or  laboratories,  where  the  food- 
making  begins.  The  most  important  material  for  making 
organic  food  is  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  is  taken  directly 
from  the  air  by  the  cells  of  the  epidermis,  and  is  passed  on 
through  their  walls  to  the  laboratory  cells.  The  rest  of  the 
raw  material  is  brought  by  the  woody  fibres.  Just  how 
this  crude  sap  is  drawn  up,  is  not  easy  to  explain.  The 
sun  helps  to  raise  it,  and  the  eager  root-hairs  and  other 
cells  force  it  up,  but  not  even  the  wisest  students  profess  to 
know  all  about  it. 

Not  nearly  all  of  the  water  brought  to  the  leaves  is 
used  by  them.  Shut  up  some  of  your  seedlings  in  a  fruit 
jar,  and  in  a  few  moments  moisture  will  be  seen  on  the 
sides  of  the  jar.  This  is  because  the  leaves  are  constantly 
giving  off  moisture  through  their  stomata.  That  is,  there 
is  a  constant  current  of  water  streaming  up  through  plants 
by  way  of  the  woody  tissue,  and  much  of  the  water  is  used 
simply  to  carry  the  other  materials  for  food-making  from 
the  root-hairs  to  the  laboratory  cells. 

In  manufacturing  food,  the  protoplasm,  helped  by  the 
sunlight  and  chlorophyll,  breaks  up  carbonic  acid  and  gives 
off  oxygen.  The  oxygen  escapes  through  the  stomata,  and 
you  can  see  bubbles  of  it  if  you  put  plants  under  water  in 
the  sunlight.  But  this  is  only  a  small  part  of  the  story  of 
what  goes  on  in  the  laboratory  cells  of  plants.  This  first 

37 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN   THEIR  HOMES 

organic  food  must  be  further  worked  up  into  many,  many 
substances.  All  our  seedlings  must  make  more  protoplasm, 
more  cell  walls,  more  chlorophyll,  and  other  colors,  perhaps, 
to  paint  the  flowers  with  ;  the  castor-oil  plant  will  make 
one  kind  of  oil,  the  peanut  another,  the  corn  and  wheat 
will  make  quantities  of  starch,  each  plant  will  manufacture 
what  gives  it  its  peculiar  taste  or  odor,  and  so  on.  Did 
you  ever  think  how  many  of  the  things  that  you  eat  and 
wear  and  use  in  other  ways  every  day,  were  originally  made 
by  plants  ?  Surely  you  will  admit  that  these  little  cell- 
laboratories  are  very  wonderful  shops  indeed.  This  making 
over  of  the  first  organic  food  into  other  substances  goes  on 
by  night  as  well  as  by  day  ;  often  other  cells  finish  what 
was  begun  in  the  leaf  cells.  The  finished  products,  too, 
must  be  distributed  to  just  the  places  that  need  them. 
This  is  done  by  quite  a  different  set  of  cells  from  those  that 
carried  up  raw  material.  So  we  see  that  in  this  little  plant- 
community  of  millions  of  cells,  each  one  has  its  own  part  to 
do,  and  not  one  is  useless  or  idle. 


38 


AUTUMN  PLANTS 


CHAPTER   III. 


PLANTS  THAT  KNOW   HOW   TO  MEET  HARD  TIMES. 

We  talk  of  hard  times  when  money  is  hard  to  get, 
because  we  want  money  to  pay  for  food  and  clothing  and 
shelter.  These  things  the  plants  make  for  themselves,  but 
they  must  have  warmth  and  material  to  work  with.  Our 
California  climate  is  kind  to  plants  in  supplying  warmth , 
and  the  air  and  soil  are  constantly  furnishing  materials  that 
plants  require,  but  oh,  how  much  water  they  need!  Water 
as  part  of  their  food,  water  for  dissolving  all  other  food, 
and  water  for  carrying  food  from  roots  to  leaves.  In  many 
parts  of  California,  however,  there  is  little  or  no  rain  for 
half  the  year;  so  from  May  to  November  there  are  hard 
times  indeed  for  California  plants. 

When  these  hard  times  come,  some  plants  give  up  at 
once,  the  bur-clover,  for  instance,  the  filaree  and  many 
grasses.  During  the  warmer  rainy  months  they  have  lived 
fast  and  have  made  haste  to  store  up  food  for  their  many, 
many  seeds,  but  they  themselves  do  not  try  to  live  through 
the  dry  season.  It  is  these  dead  plants  that,  by  the  first  of 
June,  give  California  fields  and  hills  their  summer  tints  of 
brown  and  gold. 

There  are  other  plants  that  store  up  food  for  them- 
selves, usually  below  ground;  as  the  dry  season  advances, 
the  leaves  which  give  off  so  much  precious  moisture  are 
dropped,  and  perhaps  the  shoots  die  back  nearly  or  quite 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

to  the  ground;  but  beneath  the  soil  the  plant  still  lives, 
although  it  takes  a  long  summer  nap.  We  shall  watch  the 
waking  of  these  plants  when  the  rains  come. 

Still  other  plants  bravely  go  right  on  growing  through 
the  long,  dry  summer.  If  they  live  along  streams  or  in 
shaded  canons,  they  have  not  a  hard  task,  for  in  such  places 
there  is  water  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil  that  the  fierce 
sun  cannot  quite  drink  up.  So  when  the  rest  of  the  country 
seems  brown  and  bare,  we  have  along  stream  beds,  lines  of 
willows  and  cotton  woods,  alders  with  their  clean,  straight 
trunks,  great  branching  sycamores,  and  perhaps  smaller 
plants  with  pretty  flowers.  In  our  canons  and  on  steep, 
shaded  slopes  we  have  a  great  many  plants  that  grow  and 
flourish  throughout  the  summer.  The  hardy  nightshade 
and  the  wild  broom  go  011  flowering  as  they  do  in  the  other 
seasons,  year  after  year.  The  poison  oak  is  able  to  keep 
its  beautiful  glossy  leaves;  the  California  holly  blossoms  and 
gets  ready  to  ripen  its  berries  for  Christmas;  the  clematis 
carries  its  fluffy  seeds  high  up  where  they  can  get  a  good 
start  in  the  world,  and  the  grape  vines  spread  out  their 
leaves  to  the  light. 

But  there  are  less  sheltered  hills  and  open  fields  and 
waysides  on  which  the  sun  beats  all  the  long,  cloudless 
days;  these  places,  too,  have  some  plants  that  do  not  rest 
during  the  summer  and  autumn.  Collect  all  such  plants 
that  you  can  find  on  a  September  or  October  day.  Get  the 
roots  when  you  can;  at  least  dig  for  them  until  you  know 
something  about  their  length.  Now  try  to  describe  your 
collection.  It  will  not  contain  a  single  bright  green  plant. 
The  leaves  are  all  dull  green  or  grey;  sometimes  because 
they  have  hard,  thick  skins,  more  often  because  they  have 
hairy  coats.  These  coats  are  not  fine,  silky  or  velvety  ones, 
such  as  young  leaves  often  wear  in  spring-time;  they  may 
be  fleecy,  or  they  may  feel  like  felt  or  flannel,  or  the  hairs 
may  be  very  short,  but  they  are  rough  and  coarse;  often, 

40 


AUTUMN  PLANTS 

too,  they  are  sticky  or  prickly  and  are  very  disagreeable. 
Some  of  your  plants  will  have  small  leaves,  or  else  few 
leaves;  and  you  may  find  some  with  no  leaves  at  all.  The 
stems  may  be  hairy  like  the  leaves,  and  are  likely  to  be 
hard  and  woody.  If  you  collect  your  plants  along  the  sea 
shore,  or  in  a  very  dry  or  sandy  region,  you  will  have  some 
with  very  thick,  fleshy  leaves  or  stems.  Find  out  what 
you  can  about  the  taste  of  your  plants.  Are  any  of  them 
poisonous  ?  Do  animals  eat  them  ?  You  are  sure  to  notice 
the  odors.  You  could  learn  to  know  many  California 
autumn  plants  by  the  sense  of  smell  alone. 

Now  we  want  to  think  out  the  uses  of  these  qualities. 
What  dangers  do  they  help  the  plant  to  meet  ?  At  this 
time  of  the  year,  when  plants  are  so  scarce,  they  are  in 
special  danger  of  being  eaten  by  insects  and  grazing 
animals.  So  it  is  easy  to  see  the  use  of  poisonous  or  harm- 
ful qualities,  of  bitter  taste  or  disagreeable  milky  juice. 
The  strong  odors,  of  course,  give  warning  of  unpleasant 
taste.  Sticky  and  hairy  leaves  are  not  pleasant  to  the 
tongue,  and  sometimes  prickles  are  very  cruel  weapons 
indeed.  At  the  end  of  this  chapter  are  drawings  of  some 
common  plant  hairs  tinder  the  microscope.  Number  6  is 
one  of  the  little  bristles  of  our  common  cactus,  or  prickly 
pear.  Do  you  wonder  that  it  is  so  much  trouble  to  get 
them  out  of  your  flesh?  It  is  not  strange  that  animals 
learn  to  avoid  the  plants. 

Another  danger  that  summer  brings  to  plants  in  the 
drier  parts  of  the  state,  is  the  intense  light,  for  it  injures 
the  chlorophyll  unless  a  screen  is  provided.  So  here  is 
another  use  for  the  thick  skins  and  hairs  that  give  the 
plants  their  gray  color.  Perhaps  you  know  how  gray  our 
desert  plants  are.  Another  danger  is  dust.  Plants,  like 
animals,  breathe  and  can  be  suffocated.  The  hairs  of 
plants  help  to  keep  the  dust  from  their  pores,  just  as  your 
lashes  protect  your  eyes. 

41 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

But  the  greatest  danger  that  threatens  these  plants  is 
that  the  roots  may  not  be  able  to  supply  as  much  water  as 
the  parts  above  ground  give  off.  When  you  shut  up  corn 
leaves  in  a  glass  jar,  the  moisture  they  gave  off  could  be 
seen  in  a  few  minutes.  In  the  open  air  evaporation  is  more 
rapid.  Some  one  has  figured  out  the  amount  of  water  given 
off  by  an  acre  of  grass  in  twelve  hours.  It  is  more  than 
one  hundred  tons;  it  would  cover  your  schoolroom  floor  to 
the  depth  of  three  or  four  feet.  Surely,  our  dry  weather 
plants  cannot  afford  to  part  with  water  at  this  rate. 

Find  out  for  yourselves  if  the  plants  you  have  collected 
lose  water  as  fast  as  the  corn.  Shut  up  in  separate  jars 
equal  weights  of  corn  seedlings,  and  of  shoots  like  hoar- 
hound  or  tarweed  with  woolly  leaves,  twigs  of  live  oak  or 
Eucalyptus  withjhard  leaves,  and  a  fleshy  plant  like  a  cactus 
or  a  Sedum.  Do  they  give  off  different  amounts  of  water  ? 
Take  off  the  covers  and  leave  the  plants  exposed  to  dry  air 
and  the  sun  for  a  day,  then  weigh  them  again,  and  see  which 
have  lost  the  most  water.  Next  find  out  how  much  the 
skin  helps  to  keep  in  moisture.  Peel  off  the  skin  from  some 
leaves,  Sedum  leaves  are  good  for  this;  put  these  leaves  and 
an  equal  weight  of  entire  leaves  in  the  sun  for  a  day  or 
two,  then  weigh  them  again. 

It  is  very  clear  now  that  the  skin  of  plants  control  the 
giving  off  of  water,  and  that  a  hard  or  hairy  skin  keeps  in 
more  than  a  delicate  one,  such  as  the  corn  has.  Turn  back 
to  the  picture  of  the  epidermis,  or  skin  of  a  leaf,  in  Fig. 
10.  It  consists,  you  remember,  of  tile-like  cells  fitted 
closely  together,  and  of  pairs  of  cells  with  openings  between 
them,  the  pores,  or  stomata.  Now  the  tile-like  cells  have 
their  outside  walls  thickened,  sometimes  very  much,  as  in 
the  live  oak,  Eucalyptus  and  cactus.  This  thickened  layer 
contains  a  substance  somewhat  like  tallow,  through  which 
it  is  very  difficult  for  water  to  pass.  So  most  of  the  water 
leaves  a  plant  through  the  pores.  But  these  little  mouth- 

42 


AUTUMN  PLANTS 

like  pores  can  open  and  close  ;  when  the  air  is  very  dry 
they  close  and  so  help  the  plant,  for  it  is  of  course  when 
the  air  is  hot  and  dry  that  the  plants  are  in  greatest  danger. 
Still  all  these  devices  do  not  entirely  prevent  evaporation. 
It  would  be  bad  for  the  plants  if  they  did;  for  if  the  current 
of  water  from  roots  to  leaves  were  to  stop,  there  would  be 
no  raw  material  brought  from  the  soil  to  the  leaves,  and 
food-making  would  soon  come  to  an  end.  So  even  hard 
leaves,  like  the  live  oak  and  Eucalyptus  give  off  so  much 
water  that  in  our  experiments  we  can  see  and  weigh  it. 
We  use  only  a  few  leaves  in  our  experiments;  think  how 
much  water  a  great  oak  or  a  tall  Eucalyptus  must  give  off 
from  all  its  leaves  on  a  hot  summer  day ! 

The  live  oak,  even  in  Southern  California,  will  grow  a 
long  distance  from  streams,  but  it  has  many  roots,  some  of 
which  go  far  and  deep  in  their  search  for  moist  soil.  So 
the  oak  does  not  rest  entirely  during  the  summer,  but  keeps 
busy  enough  to  ripen  its  acorns.  The  Eucalyptus  lives 
much  faster.  It  sends  out  new  leaves  all  summer  long, 
even  when  it  grows  in  places  too  dry  for  the  live  oak  to 
live  at  all.  Its  home  is  Australia,  and  it  seems  to  have 
learned  there  how  to  defy  drought.  You  know  what 
greedy  roots  it  has  ;  how  they  drink  in  all  the  moisture 
from  the  ground  so  that  other  plants  that  try  to  live  near  it 
starve.  You  have  noticed  how  little  shade  the  leaves  cast 
at  noon.  This  is  because  they  have  their  edges  toward  the 
sky,  and  the  sun  cannot  strike  their  surfaces  during  the 
hottest  part  of  the  day,  and  so  draw  out  more  moisture  than 
they  can  spare.  Earlier  and  later  in  the  day  the  sun  shines 
directly  on  the  blades,  and  helps  them  to  make  their  food 
rapidly.  Other  trees  that  have  been  brought  from  foreign 
countries  to  California,  because  they  know  how  to  stand 
dry  weather,  have  this  same  habit  of  vertical  leaves.  Find 
out  some  of  them  yourselves.  Our  own  Manzanita,  too, 
has  this  habit. 

43 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

Iii  your  experiments  you  found  that  the  cactus  and  the 
Sedum  lost  less  water  than  any  of  your  other  plants.  It  is 
easy  to  see  why.  If  you  were  to  take  two  equal  lumps  of 
clay,  and  roll  one  up  into  a  ball  and  make  the  other  into 
thin  leaves,  you  know  which  would  dry  out  first.  Indeed 
the  cactus  know  so  well  how  to  store  water  that  it  can  live 
through  the  summer  in  deserts  where  all  other  plants  perish 
entirely  or  die  back  to  the  ground. 

Other  plants  beside  the  cactus  adopt  the  plan  of 
presenting  little  surface  for  evaporation  during  the  dry 
season.  Your  collection  is  sure  to  include  plants  with  few 
leaves  or  with  small  leaves.  The  wild  broom,  Fig.  u,  has 
both  small  and  scattered  leaves,  but  the  stems  are  green, 
too,  and  help  in  the  food-making,  so  that  in  unexposed 
places  this  plant  can  go  on  flowering  all  the  year  round. 
The  plant  in  Fig.  12  is  one  kind  of  Eriogonum.  There  are 
nearly  two  hundred  kinds,  and  they  abound  in  the  drier 
parts  of  Western  America,  often  where  few  other  plants  can 
exist.  The  Eriogonutns  have  usually  small,  woolly  leaves. 
Often  the  leaves  grow  close  to  the  ground  and  die  early  in 
the  dry  season ;  after  this  the  plant  does  not  grow  much, 
but  it  can  develop  flowers  and  fruit  by  means  of  food 
already  stored,  helped  out  by  what  the  green  cells  in  the 
woolly  stems  manufacture. 

The  plant  pictured  in  Fig.  13  belongs  to  the  same 
family  as  the  tarweeds,  sage  brushes,  everlasting  flowers,  sun 
flowers  and  many  others  that  you  have  probably  collected. 
This  family  is  called  Compositse  ;  and  it  is  the  very  largest 
and  perhaps  the  most  clever  of  all  plant  families.  We  shall 
study  the  flowers  in  the  spring,  but  you  will  be  interested 
then  to  remember  how  many  of  the  family  know  how  to 
meet  hard  times.  Their  devices  are  many,  as  you  have 
seen,  but  the  most  common  one,  perhaps,  is  a  hairy  covering. 

A  thick  coating  of  hairs  is  probably  the  best  protection 
of  all  for  plants  that  are  really  active  during  the  summer. 

44 


AUTUMN  PLANTS 


Fig.  11.  WILD  BROOM — Lotus  glaber.  Fig.  12.    Eriogonum  elongatum. 

45 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


rf  v 


The  everlasting  plants,  the  hoarhound,  and  the  sage  brushes 
are  good  examples  of  this.  The  hairs  are  empty,  or  rather 
they  contain  simply  air,  so  they  keep  in  moisture  just  as  a 
layer  of  straw  keeps  soil  moist,  or  as  a  stopper  of  cotton  in 
a  bottle  keeps  water  from 
evaporating.  Besides,  the  in- 
terlacing hairs  actually  keep 
the  leaf  cells  cooler  by  shad- 
ing them  from  the  sun.  At 
the  end  of  this  chapter  are 
some  of  these  screening  plant 
hairs  as  they  look  under  the 
microscope.  One  of  the  most 
hairy  of  California  autumn 
plants  is  the  one  in  Fig.  14  ; 
children  sometimes  call  it 
turkey- weed.  In  some  parts 
of  the  state  it  covers  acres  of 
hard,  sun-baked  soil,  but  it  is 
so  nearly  the  color  of  the  dusty 
earth  that  it  is  easily  over- 
looked. It  is  sticky,  prickly 
and  ill- seen  ted,  and  you  may 
think  it  a  very  ugly  little 
weed.  Indeed,  with  so  many 
dangers  to  combat,  plants 
cannot  always  afford  to  be 
pretty,  they  must  be  content 
with  being  clever.  But  really 
this  turkey-weed  is  not  with- 
out beauty.  No.  4  at  the  end 
of  the  chapter  is  a  drawing  of 
the  hairs  under  the  micro- 
scope. You  see  that  they 
are  little  stars,  each  having 


Fig.  13.     A  SUMMER  COMPOSITE- 
iMalacotbrix  tenuifolia. 


46 


AUTUMN  PLANTS 

one  long  point  that  serves  as  a  dagger.  Do  you  not 
see  what  an  elegant  screen  these  interlacing  stars  form 
against  intense  light,  heat  and  dust?  But  these  same 
hairs  have  still  another  mission.  Have  you  ever  pi  eked  the 
plants  on  a  dewy  or  foggy  morning  and  noticed  how  heavy 
they  are?  You  can  find  by  experiment  that  the  leaves  take 


Fig.  14.     TURKEY-WEED  - 


setigera. 


in  their  own  weight  in  water  in  a  few  hours,  and  under  the 
microscope  you  can  see  the  water  enter  the  hairs.  Probably 
this  is  why  the  plant  can  go  on  blossoming  and  ripening 
seed  after  it  seems  impossible  for  the  roots  to  get  moisture 
from  the  soil. 

No.  2,  Fig.  15,  is  another  disagreeable  weed  very 
common  in  Southern  California,  but  its  flowers  are  pretty 
and  very  interesting  indeed.  They  keep  honey  for  the 
bees  only,  but  they  know  how  to  make  the  bees  pay  for  it 
by  rubbing  pollen  against  their  stigmas.  No.  i  is  the  wild 

47 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

fuchsia,  common  on  many  California  hillsides  ;  and  a  very 
beautiful  plant  it  is  !  It  is  not  strange  that  the  humming 
birds  like  to  visit  its  brilliant  scarlet  flowers.  If  you  watch, 
you  can  see  how  the  birds  carry  pollen  for  the  flowers. 

Perhaps,  as  you  were  collecting  your  plants,  you 
noticed  that  the  poison  oak  leaves  were  turning  red,  or  that 
the  sycamore  leaves  were  beginning  to  look  dull  and  dry. 
Really  these  plants  were  getting  ready  to  take  a  rest,  perhaps 
because  the  summer  had  been  so  hard  for  them.  In  cold 
and  in  dry  climates  there  are  many  trees  and  shrubs  that  do 
not  try  to  meet  hard  times,  but  drop  all  their  leaves  and  re- 
main idle  until  better  times;  they  are  called  deciduous.  In 
very  dry  countries,  the  leaves  fall  when  the  dry  air  takes  too 
much  moisture  from  them;  in  cold  countries,  when  the  soil 
gets  too  cold  to  supply  water.  It  is  not  easy  to  explain  why 
our  trees  and  shrubs  drop  their  leaves  just  when  they  do. 
Most  plants  have  definite  times  for  doing  certain  things,  and 
sometimes  it  is  impossible  to  explain  why  ;  then  we  give 
the  fact  a  long  name,  we  call  it  periodicity. 

Perhaps  it  seems  to  you  a  great  waste  for  the  trees  to 
lose  their  thousands  of  leaves  every  year ;  but  the  waste  is 
not  so  great  as  it  seems.  Before  the  leaves  fall,  the  most 
valuable  materials  emigrate  to  the  stem,  to  be  used  later  by 
the  new  leaves.  The  chlorophyll  is  broken  up  and  carried 
away,  and,  in  the  many  changes  that  take  place,  sometimes 
very  brilliant  colors  are  produced.  Perhaps  you  know 
something  about  the  gorgeous  autumn  colors  of  forests  in 
our  Eastern  States.  Old  leaves  always  contain  much  min- 
eral matter  that  has  been  left  over  from  food-making. 
Have  you  not  noticed  the  amount  of  ashes  remaining  after 
leaves  have  been  burned  ?  This  waste  matter  is  given  back 
to  the  earth  as  the  leaves  decay,  and  can  be  used  again. 
The  decaying  leaves  enrich  the  soil  in  other  ways,  and  also 
help  to  keep  it  moist. 

Be  sure,  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  to  watch  the 

48 


Fig.  15.     PLANTS   OF   THE  DRY  SEASON. 
1.  Wild  fuchsia,  Zauscbneria  Californica.    2.  Blue  curls,  Tricbostema  lanceolatum. 

4  49 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

plants  you  have  been  studying.  You  will  find  some  of 
them  working  on  more  busily  than  ever  after  the  rains 
come.  Others  will  take  their  vacation  just  when  material 
for  food-making  comes  most  easily;  but  you  must  remem- 
ber that  in  plant  life,  as  in  business  life,  there  is  what  is 
called  competition.  The  stronger  crowd  out  the  weaker, 
and  there  is  not  room  for  all  at  the  same  time.  So  the 
plants  that  know  how  to  meet  hard  times  wait  until  there  • 
is  less  competition,  and  brave  other  dangers  instead;  and, 
as  we  have  seen,  they  make  a  success  of  life  and  are  some- 
times beautiful  besides. 


F:g.  16.     PLANT  HAIRS  UNDER  THE  MICROSCOPE. 

1.  Croton.     2.   Mentzelia.    .3.  Gnaphalium.     4.  Kremocarpus.     5.  Trichostema. 

6.  Cactus. 


50 


FUNGI 


CHAPTER   IV. 


SOME  PLANTS  THAT  DO  NOT  MAKE  THEIR  OWN  LIVING. 

The  world  is  full  of  vagabond  plants,  and  the  smallest 
ones  make  the  most  trouble.  Many  of  these  plants  belong 
to  the  group  bacteria;  they  are  also  commonly  called 
microbes  or  germs.  They  are  very  small  indeed,  so  minute 
that  it  takes  skillful  hands  and  the  best  of  microscopes  to 
find  out  about  them.  But  they  are  everywhere,  in  the  air, 
in  the  soil,  in  water  and  in  the  tissues  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals. Like  all  other  plants  considered  in  this  chapter, 
bacteria  have  no  chlorophyll,  and  so  they  must  live  on 
other  plants  and  animals,  living  or  dead.  When  these 
little  plants  have  warmth  and  moisture  and  just  the  right 
sort  of  food,  they  grow  and  multiply  at  a  most  astonishing 
rate;  many  millions  of  plants  can  arise  from  one,  in  a  single 
day.  When  they  cannot  get  food,  they  simply  rest  and 
wait.  Some  kinds  can  remain  dormant  for  years,  and  they 
are  so  minute  that  they  can  be  scattered  far  and  wide  in 
this  condition. 

In  order  to  get  their  food,  bacteria  must  break  up  or- 
ganic substances  and  cause  many  changes.  Some  that  live 
in  the  blood  of  animals  cause  serious  diseases.  Often  a 
knowledge  of  the  habits  of  these  tiny  plants  helps  us  to  get 
rid  of  them.  It  is  known,  for  instance,  that  a  few  hours  of 
sunlight  and  dry  air  will  kill  the  bacteria  that  cause  con- 
sumption, and  that  boiling  temperature  kills  many  danger- 

51 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

ous  germs.  In  general,  a  study  of  these  plants  has  proved 
that  cleanliness  and  care  can  prevent  many  diseases. 

But  even  bacteria  are  not  all  bad.  When  plants  and 
animals  die,  it  is  the  bacteria  that  cause  their  decay;  that 
is,  this  multitude  of  invisible  plants,  in  getting  their  own 
food  from  dead  organic  matter,  break  it  up.  In  taking 
what  they  need  for  their  own  growth,  they  set  free  valuable 
substances  that  would  otherwise  remain  locked  up.  Car- 
bonic acid  gas  is  returned  to  the  air,  and  the  nitrogen  that 
formed  part  of  the  dead  plants  and  animals,  is  prepared  by 
the  bacteria  so  that  it  can  be  used  by  living  plants.  So 
finally  all  the  dead  matter  is  used  up  and  disappears,  leaving 
room  in  the  world  for  new  generations  of  plants  and  animals. 

There  are  other  invisible  plants,  almost  as  small  as  the 
bacteria,  that  make  our  bread  light  and  edible.  When  we 
stir  tiny  yeast  plants  into  flour  and  water  and  keep  them 
warm,  they  become  active  at  once,  and  eagerly  help  them- 
selves to  the  food  that  the  wheat  made  for  its  own  seed- 
lings. Bread  is  raised  by  the  bubbles  of  gas  that  the  yeast 
plants  set  free,  as  they  take  what  they  want  for  themselves. 
It  should  be  baked  in  time  to  kill  the  little  plants  before 
they  rob  it  of  so  much  food  that  it  is  sour.  In  like  manner 
minute  plants  cause  what  we  call  alcoholic  fermentation  in 
beer  and  in  wine  and  fruit  juice  generally.  When  fruit  is 
canned  it  is  heated  in  order  to  kill  all  such  mischief-makers. 

But  there  are  also  vagabond  plants  that  we  can  see 
without  the  microscope.  Keep  some  bread  moist  and  warm 
for  a  few  days  and  watch  it  closely.  You  will  see  first  a 
mass  of  fuzzy,  white  hairs;  soon  you  will  be  able  to  make 
out  clusters  of  tiny  white  stalks  with  balls  on  the  ends; 
finally  you  will  see  the  balls  turn  black  and  the  whole  mass 
darken.  Your  bread  will  then  be  covered  with  a  ripened 
crop  of  plants  called  black  mould.  One  of  the  clusters 
under  the  microscope  looks  like  No.  i,  Fig.  17.  You  see 
there  are  root-like  cells  for  sucking  in  the  ready-made 

52 


FUNGI 


Fig.  17.     MOULD. 

1.  Single  plant,  x  40.    2,  same,  natural  size.    3.  Spore-case.    4.  Resting  spore. 
3  and  4Jiighly  magnified. 

food.  You  probably  guess  that  the  minute  bodies  escaping 
from  the  balls  correspond  to  seeds  and  are  able  to  grow  into 
new  plants;  they  are  called  spores.  Think  how  many 
spores  every  little  plant  produces!  Since  there  are  so 
many  mould  spores  in  the  air,  do  you  wonder  that  when- 
ever we  leave  their  food  standing  long  enough  in  a  warm, 
moist  place,  we  are  sure  to  find  a  crop  of  mould  ? 

There  are  many  other  plants  that,  like  the  mould,  con- 
sist mainly  of  slender,  white  hairs,  but  the  hairs  are  often 
densely  interwoven.  Fungi  is  the  name  given  to  this 
group  of  plants.  When  fungi  get  their  food  from  living 
plants  and  animals,  these  delicate  hairs,  or  cells,  that  absorb 
the  food  are  often  within  the  tissues  of  their  host,  but  the 
spores  are  likely  to  be  produced  outside.  Smut  on  corn, 
rust  on  wheat  or  rose  leaves  or  malva,  and  the  white  powder 
often  seen  surrounding  dead  house-flies,  are  all  spores  of 
such  fungi.  There  are  fungi  that  sometimes  attack  potatoes, 
grape  vines,  fruit  trees,  silk  worms,  etc.,  and  work  great 

53 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

ruin.  There  are  men  who  spend  their  lives  studying  these 
fungi  under  the  microscope.  Often  they  are  able  to  find 
out  how  to  destroy  them,  and  then  millions  of  dollars  are 
saved. 

Lichens  do  not  deserve  to  be  classed  with  vagabond 
plants,  as  we  shall  see.  You  will  usually  have  to  look  in 
moist  places  for  lichens.  It  is  said  that  Indians  find  their 
way  through  forests  by  means  of  the  denser  growth  of 
lichens  and  mosses  on  the  north  sides  of  trees.  Lichen 
No.  i,  Fig.  1 8,  grows  in  long  gray  festoons  from  trees 
along  our  coasts,  and  a  very  ancient,  weird  appearance  it 
gives  them.  No.  2  is  a  dainty  -little  lichen  that  clothes 
shaded  banks  of  crumbling  rock;  in  fact,  the  lichens  are 
constantly  crumbling  this  gravel  into  finer  soil,  because  the 
white  threads  that  fasten  them  to  the  rocks  can  actually 
dissolve  the  rock  and  pry  fragments  apart.  No.  4  is  very 
abundant  on  weather-beaten  pines  in  the  mountains;  the 
color  of  the  lichen  is  a  soft,  greenish  yellow  and  its  cups 
are  a  rich  brown.  No.  3  is  one  of  the  many  lichens  that 
form  crusts  on  rocks  or  old  wood.  No.  5  is  a  dead  twig  on 
which  several  lichen  colonies  have  found  a  home.  It  is  not 
rare  for  dead  trees,  great  rocks,  old  fences,  walls,  buildings, 
etc.,  to  become  really  beautiful  because  of  a  covering  of 
lichens  with  their  graceful  outlines  and  beautiful  tints. 
The  coloring  matter  of  some  lichens  is  used  for  dyes. 

Lichens  grow  the  world  over.  They  have  been  found 
on  the  highest  mountain  tops  ever  reached  by  man ;  they 
grow  in  hot  countries  on  rocks  that  are  so  heated  in  the 
dry  season  that  you  could  not  bear  your  hands  on  them; 
they  also  thrive  in  arctic  regions.  The  so-called  reindeer 
moss  is  really  a  kind  of  lichen,  and  this  lichen  makes  life 
possible,  not  only  to  the  reindeer,  but  also  to  the  people 
that  depend  on  the  reindeer  for  their  living. 

Make  a  collection  of  lichens,  and  find  out  all  you  can 
about  them .  As  you  pull  them  off  from  whatever  they  are 

54 


Fig.  18.    LICHENS. 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

growing  on,  you  will  notice  that  you  must  break  tough, 
white  fibres  that  have  held  them  fast.  Perhaps,  by  tearing 
and  picking  apart  your  lichen,  you  can  find  out  that  much 
of  it  consists  of  this  same  tough,  white,  felt-like  mass  of 
fuzzy  hairs;  that  is,  the  greater  part  of  a  lichen  is  fungus. 
Probably  you  can  find  near  the  surface  some  traces  of 
bright  green  color.  You  will  find  little  cups  or  saucers 
on  most  of  your  lichens.  You  can  see,  too,  how  quickly  dry 
lichens  absorb  nearly  their  own  weight  of  water. 

Now  the  microscope  tells  a  wonderful  story  about 
lichens.  It  shows  clearly  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
lichen  is  fungus,  but  among  the  interlacing  threads  of  the 
fungus  are  multitudes  of  tiny,  green  cells,  called  algae. 
Each  green  cell  is  a  plant  that  can  live  quite  by  itself.  So 
we  see  that  a  lichen  is  not  a  single  plant,  but  it  consists  of 
a  big  fungus  that  cannot  make  its  own  living  and  a  host  of 
minute  algae  that  can  make  food  very  fast  indeed  when 
there  is  plenty  of  water;  and  the  big,  helpless  fungus 
is  actually  supported  by  these  tiny  mites,  the  algae.  But 
the  algae  can  well  afford  to  make  food  for  the  fungus,  as 
well  as  for  themselves,  for  the  fungus  shelters  them  and 
provides  them  with  the  moisture  and  the  dissolved  minerals 
and  gases  that  they  need.  The  algae  really  thrive  better 
imprisoned  by  the  fungus  than  when  they  are  free  and  have 
only  themselves  to  support.  So  both  fungus  and  algae 
have  plenty  of  food  when  there  is  moisture  to  be  had,  and 
they  can  get  moisture  from  the  air  when  we  cannot  see  it 
at  all.  When  the  air  is  dry,  they  rest;  and  they  can  rest  for 
months,  and  then  spring  quickly  into  active  life  again  if 
there  is  rain  or  fog  or  dew. 

I4ke  other  fungi,  the  lichen  fungus  produces  many 
spores.  They  grow  in  tiny  sacs  just  below  the  surface  of 
the  little  cups  you  saw.  When  these  spores  find  a  resting 
place  in  a  favorable  spot  and  among  suitable  algae  servants, 
they  grow  into  new  lichens.  You  will  often  find  lichens 

56 


FUNGI 

covered  with  gray  powder.  This  consists  simply  of  lichen 
fragments,  which  also  can  grow  into  new  plants. 

Another  group  of  attractive  and  often  useful  fungi  in- 
cludes toad-stools,  puff-balls,  earth-stars,  shelf  fungi,  and 
others.  Most  of  these  grow  in  decaying  plant  or  animal 
matter.  When  the  plants  grow  in  decaying  leaves,  the 
part  that  takes  in  the  food  is  easily  seen.  Sometimes  it 
looks  like  mould,  but  usually  it  is  more  compact.  This 
part  of  toad-stools  is  sometimes  surprisingly  small,  but  the 
slender,  delicate  cells  can  take  in  food  and  make  new  cells 
at  a  most  marvelous  rate.  Have  you  not  seen  great  masses 
of  toad-stools  come  up  within  a  few  hours  after  a  rain? 
And  the  more  you  examine  the  toad-stools,  the  more  you 
will  wonder  that  they  can  grow  so  quickly.  The  hundreds 
of  folds  or  gills  that  hang  under  the  umbrella-like  part  are 
like  velvet.  Under  the  microscope,  we  can  see  that  they 
are  densely  covered  with  short  hairs,  or  stalks  and  every 
stalk  bears  four  spores  on  the  end.  lyeave  the  umbrella, 
gills  downward,  on  a  piece  of  paper,  and  soon  you  will  see 
the  spores  that  have  fallen  like  powder  on  the  paper.  Toad- 
stools have  clever  ways  for  scattering  their  spores.  Many, 
as  they  ripen,  dissolve  and  spread  over  the  ground  like 
thick,  black  ink,  so  carrying  their  spores  some  distance. 
Many  toad-stools  invite  flies  and  beetles  to  lay  their  eggs  in 
them,  promising  good  food  for  the  little  larvae  as  they 
hatch  out — worms  or  maggots  perhaps  you  have  called 
them.  The  larvae  eat  greedily  and  grow  very  fast,  and 
soon  the  whole  toad-stool  is  a  wriggling,  squirming  mass; 
so  the  larvae  are  covered  with  spores,  and  when  they  bur- 
row into  the  earth  to  change  into  flies  and  beetles,  they 
carry  these  spores  with  them. 

The  toad-stools,  which  are  good  food  for  baby  flies  and 
beetles,  are  often  good  for  us.  They  are  really  about  as 
valuable  food  as  meat,  and  in  countries  where  the  people 
know  and  appreciate  them,  the  fields  and  woods  are  eagerly 

57 


Fig.  19.    SOME  COMMON  FUNGI. 
1,  2,  3,  4.  Toad-stools.    5.  Earth-star.     6.  Pore  fungus,  Polyporu 


FUNGI 

searched  for  them.  Perhaps  you  have  thought  that  there 
is  only  one  kind  good  to  eat,  the  kind  usually  called  the 
mushroom,  No.  i  in  the  picture.  Really  there  are  many 
edible  kinds.  In  our  Eastern  States  over  one  hundred 
kinds  are  known  to  be  good  for  food.  A  botanist  in  South- 
ern California  found  twenty- seven  edible  kinds  in  one  sea- 
son, and  only  two  that  were  poisonous.  There  are  a  few 
kinds  that  contain  a  deadly  poison.  Many  others  are 
harmless  but  are  not  pleasant  to  the  taste.  There  is  no 
sure  rule  that  distinguishes  all  poisonous  toad-stools  from 
those  that  are  edible,  but  people  can  learn  to  know  them 
just  as  they  learn  to  know  flowers  or  birds. 

Puff- balls  keep  their  spores  inside  the  balls;  pinch  a  dry 
one  and  you  will  see  the  spores  come  out  in  little  clouds.  If 
you  have  sharp  eyes  you  may  find  earth-stars  among  de- 
caying oak  leaves.  As  you  can  see  from  the  picture,  they 
are  similar  to  puff-balls,  but  have  an  extra  coat  that  splits 
and  opens  out  like  a  star  when  the  ground  is  moist;  as  the 
earth-star  dries,  the  coat  closes  up  around  the  spore-case 
again.  One  kind  of  puff-ball  grows  very  large,  a  foot  or 
even  a  yard  through,  it  is  said.  This  giant  puff-ball  is 
very  good  to  eat.  Think  how  many  slices  of  puff-ball  steak 
can  be  cut  from  one  of  them!  The  shelf  fungus,  or  pore 
fungus,  No.  6,  usually  grows  on  trees,  living  or  dead.  The 
spores  line  the  tiny  tubes  on  the  under  side  of  the  shelf. 
The  part  that  takes  in  food  threads  through  and  through 
the  wood,  and  causes  it  to  crumble  and  decay  rapidly. 

There  are  also  plants  with  flowers  and  seeds  that  can- 
not make  their  own  living;  the  dodder,  or  gold  thread,  for 
instance,  which  twines  so  closely  around  other  plants,  and 
sucks  out  their  juices.  On  the  ground  in  our  mountain 
forests  are  numbers  of  flowering  plants  with  never  a  trace 
of  green  color  about  them.  Perhaps  you  have  seen  our 
beautiful  crimson  snow  plant  with  flowers  that  humming 
birds  love.  In  dense  tropical  forests,  plants  of  this  sort  are 

59 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

very  common,  for,  since  they  do  not  need  the  sun  to  help 
make  their  food,  they  can  live  in  dark,  gloomy  places. 
The  very  largest  flower  known  grows  on  such  a  plant  in 
the  forests  of  Sumatra.  The  flower  is  more  than  three  feet 
across,  and  its  seeds  are  scattered  by  elephants. 


60 


WINTER  PLANTS 


CHAPTER  V. 


AFTER  THE   RAINS. 

How  and  when  did  they  come  up,  these  wayside  seed- 
lings? Did  you  watch?  Did  you  catch  the  pale  little 
arches  lifting  the  soil  ?  Or  had  the  little  pairs  of  leaves  got 
out  before  you  knew  the  seeds  were  awake  ?  You  were 
alert  if  you  saw  it  all,  for  the  seedlings  come  very  quickly 
at  the  call  of  the  first  rain.  Of  course  you  were  not  sur- 
prised to  see  that  the  first  two  leaves  were  unlike  the  next 
ones,  for  you  would  remember  the  seed  leaves  of  the  plants 
you  grew  in  the  house.  Did  you  find  out  that  the  pairs  of 
leaves  that  look  like  little,  green,  Indian  arrow-heads  belong 
to  that  common  weed,  the  malva?  The  filaree  is  easy  to 
make  out;  the  grass  comes  up  like  the  corn  and  leaves  its 
cotyledon  in  the  ground;  the  bur-clover  seeds  stay  in  the 
bur  and  sprout  there.  And  this  is  a  very  good  plan  the 
bur-clover  has.  Germinate  some  bur-clover  seeds  on  top 
of  moist  earth,  and  you  will  see  what  trouble  they  have 
getting  into  the  soil.  The  root-tip  wants  to  go  down,  as 
root- tips  always  do,  but  the  seed  is  very  light  and  it  is  not 
held  down  by  the  earth  above  it,  so  the  growing  root  has 
nothing  to  push  against,  and  simply  slips  along  the  surface 
until  its  root-hairs  anchor  it  so  that  it  can  bore  its  way  into 
the  soil.  But  the  burs  that  hold  the  clover  seeds  are  more 
or  less  covered  with  dust;  when  it  rains  they  stick  in  the 
wet  soil,  and  their  little  teeth  anchor  the  seeds  so  firmly  that 

61 


CALIFORNIA   PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


Fig.  20.     EARLY  SEEDLINGS. 
1.  Fox-tail  grass. .  2.  Malva.    3.  Filaree.    4.  Bur-clover. 

the  root  can  grow  down  at  once.  And  the  seeds  are  better 
off  in  the  bur  than  they  would  be  in  the  ground,  because 
they  are  protected  and,  at  the  same  time,  are  likely  to  be 
carried  away  in  the  bur  to  some  place  where  they  will  have 
more  room  to  grow. 

Perhaps,  after  the  first  rain,  there  were  weeks  of  hot, 
dry  weather,  and  the  little  seedlings  that  came  up  first  died 
of  thirst;  but  nature  seems  always  to  have  a  reserve  supply, 
buried  deeper,  perhaps,  and  sooner  or  later  the  hills  and 
fields  have  their  carpet  of  green.  Now  the  seedlings  that 
form  this  carpet  have  but  a  few  months  to  live,  and  their 
lives,  which  seem  so  short  to  us,  must  be  very  busy  ones 
indeed.  There  is  usually  plenty  of  water  at  this  time  of 
year,  and  the  sun  is  no  longer  to  be  feared,  but  has  become 
a  genial  friend.  And  how  the  little  plants  reach  out  to 
him!  Notice  the  malva  leaves  in  the  morning,  and  again 
at  noon  and  towards  evening.  All  day  long  the  leaves 
turn  on  their  stems  so  as  to  directly  face  the  sun,  for  the 
sun's  rays  furnish  the  power  for  the  food-making  that  is 
going  on  in  the  millions  of  laboratory  cells  packed  so  closely 
just  beneath  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf.  The  bur-clover, 
too,  holds  up  its  leaves  to  the  sun.  One  kind  of  filaree, 
when  it  has  room,  spreads  out  flat  in  pretty  leaf  rosettes, 

62 


WINTER  PLANTS 


Fig.  21.     SEEDLINGS  SPREAD  OUT  TO  THE  SUN. 
1.  Lupine.    2.  Filaree. 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

as  in  Fig.  21,  but  when  many  plants  grow  close  together, 
the  leaves  rise  and  stretch  up  to  the  sun.  Count  the  leaves 
on  such  a  plant  and  see  how  many  are  not  shaded.  Even 
if  one  leaf  must  stand  between  another  and  the  sun,  it  is  so 
slashed  and  divided  that  it  lets  much  light  through.  The 
lupine  seedling  in  the  picture  spreads  out  like  a  fan  with 
leaves  facing  the  sun;  it  looks  almost  as  if  it  had  been 
pressed  for  a  herbarium.  This  lupine  has  a  coat  of  silky 
hairs  that  later  on  will  preserve  it  from  loss  of  moisture, 
but  now  it  protects  it  from  the  cold  of  the  nights.  The 
bur-clover  leaves  know  a  good  way  to  keep  warm  at  night; 
they  fold  their  leaflets  and  cuddle  them  close  together  so 
that  they  lose  less  heat.  You  can  see  this  easily  for  your- 
selves, for  the  clover  leaves  go  to  sleep  early.  Try  to  find 
other  leaves  that  take  "sleeping  positions." 

But  our  green  carpet  does  not  consist  entirely  of  seed- 
lings. Soon  after  the  first  heavy  rains,  plants  like  those  in 
Fig.  22  appear  and  soon  overtop  the  others.  By  digging,  you 
can  find  out  why  they  grow  so  much  faster  than  the  seed- 
lings. No.  4,  Fig.  22,  is  the  soap-root,  cut  in  two  to  show 
what  the  bulb  is  like  inside.  The  soap-root  is  very  com- 
mon in  California,  and  it  is  well  named,  for  it  does  very 
nicely  for  soap.  Examine  a  plant  carefully  and  you  will 
find  that  the  white  layers  are  the  bases  of  the  leaves,  and 
that  the  layers  of  brown  husk  are  the  remains  of  leaves  of 
other  years.  The  white  substance  is,  of  course,  mainly 
food,  and  the  soapy  quality  protects  it  against  hungry  little 
gophers  and  the  like;  the  husk  of  strong  interlacing  strands 
is  a  protection  too.  Compare  the  amount  of  food  in  this 
bulb  with  what  is  stored  in  little  seeds  like  the  bur-clover 
or  malva,  and  you  will  understand  why  the  soap-root  can 
grow  so  fast.  As  long  as  there  is  plenty  of  moisture,  its 
pretty  ruffled  leaves  go  on  making  more  food  and  storing  it 
in  their  bases;  but  do  you  think  these  leaves  can  go  on 
working  when  the  dry  season  comes?  They  are  like  the 

61 


Fig.  22.     EVRI,Y  GROWTH  FROM  UNDERGROUND  STOREHOUSES. 
1.  An  Umbellifer.    2.  Blue-eyed  grass.    3.  Cluster  lily.    4.  Soap-root. 

5  65 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

corn  leaves,  and  give  off  moisture  rapidly,  and  when  the 
soil  gets  dry  they  are  sure  to  perish.  It  is  not  until  after 
they  are  dead,  that  the  food  they  have  stored  will  be  used. 
In  June,  perhaps,  a  tall  flower  stalk,  sometimes  six  or 
eight  feet  high,  will  shoot  up  from  the  bulb,  and  slender, 
white  lilies  will  open  late  in  the  afternoon, — but  we  will 
wait  till  June  to  see  the  rest. 

No.  3  is  one  of  the  earliest  plants  to  bloom.  It  is 
the  cluster  lily,  cocometa,  the  Spanish  call  it.  We  shall 
find  out  more  about  it  in  Chapter  VII,  but  now  is  the  time 
to  see  what  the  first  leaf  does;  it  has  pierced  the  ground  by 
means  of  its  sharply  pointed  tip  and  it  is  wrapped  about  the 
other  leaves  and  the  oeginnings  of  the  flowers,  so  that  it 
brings  them,  too,  above  ground  and  protects  them  for  a 
time.  No.  2  is  a  young  plant  of  the  blue-eyed  grass. 
No.  i  belongs  to  the  carrot  family,  and  will  bloom 
early.  You  will  find  that  many  other  plants  that  were  en- 
tirely underground  during  the  dry  season,  are  starting  into 
life  again  now.  The  prettiest  of  them  all  are  the  ferns,  but 
they  shall  have  a  chapter  to  themselves. 

A  very  striking  new  growth  from  an  underground 
store-house  is  the  chilicothe,  or  wild  cucumber.  The 
shoots  come  up  early  in  the  winter  and  in  a  very  short  time 
they  are  many  feet  long  and  are  in  full  flower.  In  the  val- 
leys of  Southern  California  one  can  always  find  the  chili- 
cothe in  flower  before  Christmas,  even  in  dry  years  when 
there  is  very  little  other  new  growth  at  that  time.  The 
root  explains  this,  in  fact  the  plant  is  often  called  big-root 
or  man-root;  roots  two  feet  long  and  half  as  thick  are  com- 
mon, and  they  are  said  to  be  sometimes  four  feet  long. 
These  roots  must  store  up  a  great  deal  of  moisture  as  well 
as  food,  for  when  the  regular  season  for  new  growth  comes, 
they  can  supply  the  shoots  regardless  of  rainfall;  in  fact, 
new  shoots  will  come  out  in  November  from  roots  that 
have  been  out  of  the  soil  for  months.  Of  course  such  roots 


Fig.  23.     CHIUCOTHE— Micrampelis  macrocarpa. 

67 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

as  these  are  very  troublesome,  greedy  neighbors  in  orchards, 
and  they  grow  so  deep  in  the  soil  that  it  is  not  easy  to  get 
rid  of  them.  The  roots  protect  themselves  against  animals 
by  being  very  bitter.  The  foliage  is  bitter,  too,  but  cows 
will  eat  it;  perhaps  you  know  how  it  makes  the  milk  taste. 
The  vines  climb  up  into  the  light  by  tendrils  that  grasp 
everything  within  their  reach,  and  the  flowers  burst  out  be- 
fore the  leaves  are  fully  grown.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
flowers;  see  if  you  can  find  them.  The  flower  that  will 
become  a  big,  spiny,  green  bur,  grows  by  itself  close  to 
the  stem;  you  will  find  the  little  bur  below  the  white  cor- 
olla; above  it  is  a  big  sticky  knob  called  the  stigma.  The 
flowers  that  grow  in  clusters  have,  in  the  center,  organs 
that  produce  yellow  dust  called  pollen.  The  pollen  must 
reach  the  stigma  in  order  to  make  the  bur  and  its  seeds 
grow.  As  these  flowers  do  not  make  honey  to  induce  in- 
sects to  visit  them  and  to  carry  pollen  to  the  stigmas  of 
other  flowers,  the  pollen  is  probably  carried  mainly  by  the 
wind.  You  must  watch  the  burs  after  they  are  grown,  to 
see  how  the  seeds  get  out.  During  the  summer  the  softer 
part  of  the  bur  decays  and  leaves  a  pretty  lace-like  skeleton. 

Look  now  for  the  plants  you  studied  in  the  fall.  Many 
of  them  are  taking  their  winter  rest,  but  the  hoarhound, 
everlasting  plant,  and  sage  brush  have  fine  new  shoots  in 
fleecy,  white  dress.  Some  shrubby  lupines  are  even  more 
beautifully  dressed,  in  shimmering  silky  coats.  The  poison 
oak  has  already  its  new  leaves,  and  see  how  they  spread 
out  to  the  sun!  When  the  poison  oak  is  climbing  against 
a  bank  or  tree  trunk,  the  leaves  fit  so  closely  together  with- 
out overlapping  that  they  form  what  are  called  leaf-mosaics. 
How  does  the  poison  oak  climb?  Does  the  chilicothe 
climb  in  the  same  way  ?  What  cultivated  plant  does  ? 

Many  other  shrubs  that  lost  their  leaves  in  summer  or 
autumn,  have  their  new  leaves  well  grown,  and  some  are 
in  flower,  the  wild  currants  and  gooseberries,  for  instance. 

68 


WINTER  PLANTS 


Fig.  24.     WII.D   CURRANT— Ribes  glutinosum. 

69 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

The  leaves  of  the  wild  currant  are  rather  disagreeable; 
they  come  early  and  have  to  look  out  for  themselves,  but 
the  pink  and  white  flowers  are  lovely  enough.  Eastern 
people  say  they  resemble  the  trailing  arbutus,  their  own 
early  spring  flower  that  they  love  to  talk  and  write  about, 
and  they  wonder  that  we  do  not  care  more  for  our  pretty 
early  flowers.  Some  early  wild  gooseberries  have  long, 
bright  red  flowers  that  serve  honey  to  humming  bird 
guests,  but  do  not  exclude  the  larger  bees.  The  goose- 
berries are  well  protected  by  thorns,  so  they  can  afford  beau- 
tiful glossy  leaves;  they  arrange  their  leaves  so  that  they 
get  plenty  of  light  and  at  the  same  time  form  a  roof  over 


Fig.  25.     WII«D  GOOSEBERRY— Ribes  amarum. 


the  flowers  that  will  protect  the  pollen  from  rain.  Perhaps 
you  will  find  the  wild  lilac  in  flower.  One  kind  of  early 
lilac  has  leaves  with  the  edges  rolled  back  all  around  and  a 
thick  fur  on  the  under  side.  In  the  canons  you  will  find 
many  other  plants  with  rolled  leaves,  or  leaves  with  fur  or 
fuzz  or  bloom  on  the  underside  only,  and  we  shall  talk 
about  the  reason  later  on. 

How  many  of  the  native  trees  of  your  neighborhood 
arejeafless  now?  Notice  the  cultivated  ones,  too.  Have 
any  of  them  new  leaves  yet  ?  Trees  are  generally  slower 
than  smaller  plants  in  getting  their  new  leaves,  and  most 

70 


WINTER  PLANTS 

of  the  deciduous  trees  will  seem  to  you  quite  asleep  this 
time  of  the  year.  But  you  can  find  the  buds  that  will  later 
unfold  into  leafy  shoots  and  flowers.  Where  does  the  syca- 
more keep  these  buds  ?  Where  are  they  on  the  other  trees  ? 
How  are  these  buds  protected  on  the  willow  ?  On  the  cot- 
tonwood  and  the  alder?  On  the  fruit  trees  in  your  orchards  ? 
If  the  coverings  are  not  distinct  now,  you  can  see  them 
better  as  the  buds  begin  to  swell.  Perhaps  the  ' '  pussies  ' ' 
on  the  willows  are  already  bursting  out.  Find  out  for  your- 
selves what  the  willow  flowers  are  like  and  where  they  keep 
their  honey.  The  bees  know,  and  you  can  watch  them,  they 
will  not  mind  you  in  the  least.  What  else  do  they  get  be- 
sides honey?  Farther  on  we  shall  have  a  lesson  on  the 
awakening  of  the  trees,  but  they  do  not  all  awaken  at 
once,  and  unless  you  keep  your  eyes  open  all  along,  you 
will  miss  many  of  their  clever  ways. 


71 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


CHAPTER  VI. 


FERNS  AND  THEIR  RELATIVES. 

How  they  love  moisture,  the  ferns  and  their  kindred! 
You  noticed  how  quickly  they  responded  to  the  invitation 
of  the  rain.  The  rock  fern  or  Polypodium  came  above 
ground  so  quickly  that  it  was  hard  to  catch  the  leaves  un- 
rolling; and  that  is  a  pity,  because  they  are  such  neat  little 
balls  when  they  first  break  through  the  soil.  It  is  easy  to 
see  why  the  Polypodium  can  grow  so  fast,  for  the  under- 
ground stem  is  an  ample  storehouse,  and  there  is  a  tangle 
of  long  slender  roots  to  gather  moisture.  With  the  first 
rains,  moisture  is  absorbed  to  dissolve  the  stored  food  and 
make  it  read}7  for  the  use  of  the  baby  leaves  that  are  snugly 
curled  up  like  little  knobs  along  the  underground  stems. 
Soon  the  leaves  are  above  ground,  uncoiling,  and  spreading 
out  millions  of  green  cells  to  the  light.  Hold  up  a  leaf  and 
look  through  it  for  woody  strands.  You  can  trace  these 
strands  running  up  the  slender  roots,  through  the  under- 
ground stem,  up  through  the  leaf  stem,  branching  through 
every  leaflet  and  sending  off  slender  fibres  that  reach  to  the 
very  tips  of  the  teeth  along  the  leaf  margin.  As  in  the 
seedlings,  these  woody  strands  serve  to  carry  the  raw  ma- 
terial taken  in  by  the  root-hairs,  up  to  the  green  cells  in  the 
leaves,  there  to  be  manufactured  into  useful  food. 

This  fern  works  rapidly  while  there  is  plenty  of  moist- 
ure, and  early  in  the  winter  you  will  find,  on  the  under 
side  of  some  leaves,  what  look  like  tiny  seeds  in  neat  round 
clusters.  But  did  you  ever  know  seeds  to  come  without 

72 


Fig.  26.     Polypodium  Californicum. 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

flowers  first  ?  Besides,  if  you  try  to  make  those  ' '  fern 
seeds"  grow,  you  will  see  nothing  that  looks  like  a  fern  for 
a  long  time.  These  facts  used  to  puzzle  the  people  of  olden 
times,  and  have  led  to  some  curious  beliefs.  For  instance, 
fern  seeds  were  supposed  to  be  formed  in  some  mysterious 
way  on  midsummer  nights.  To  find  them  one  must  go 
alone  at  midnight  and  must  repeat  certain  magic  words. 
For  hundreds  of  years  no  one  seems  to  have  taken  the 
trouble  to  find  out  certainly  whether  the  brown  specks 
really  were  fern  seeds.  It  was  not  until  about  fifty  years 
ago  that  the  truth  about  them  was  found  out.  Under  the 
microscope  they  look  like  Nos.  i,  2  and  3  in  the  drawing  at 
the  end  of  the  chapter.  That  is,  each  tiny  speck  is  not  a 
seed,  nor  even  a  spore,  but  a  transparent  case,  somewhat 
like  a  watchcase,  and  it  is  filled  with  spores.  So  the  round 
spots  on  the  underside  of  the  Polypodium  are  clusters  of 
spore-cases.  Kach  case  has  around  it  a  ring  of  strong  elas- 
tic tissue  that  has  one  weak  place.  When  the  ring  breaks 
it  acts  like  a  spring  and  straightens  itself,  tearing  open  the 
case  and  flinging  out  the  spores .  Millions  of  spores  simply 
perish,  but  here  and  there  one  will  find  a  suitable  place  for 
growing.  You  will  need  sharp  eyes  to  find  the  first  growth 
from  the  spores,  and  you  need  look  only  in  very  shady, 
damp  places.  lyittle  colonies  are  sometimes  found  beneath 
projecting  clods  of  earth,  or  on  steep  north  banks  shaded 
by  vines  and  brambles.  The  strangest  part  of  the  story  is 
that  the  first  growth  from  the  fern  spore  does  not  in  the  least 
resemble  a  fern.  It  is  a  thin,  delicate,  green  scale,  not  so 
large  as  your  finger-nail;  it  lies  flat  on  the  ground  and  is 
fastened  to  it  by  delicate  root-hairs.  It  is  pictured  in  No. 
4,  Fig.  30,  at  the  end  of  the  chapter.  Perhaps  you  will  find 
a  plant  a  little  more  advanced,  like  No.  5.  The  green  scale 
has  sent  down  a  little  root,  and  a  slender  stem  is  growing 
up  bearing  a  minute  ball  that  will  unfold  into  a  tiny  leaf. 
Soon  another  leaf  grows  up,  but  by  this  time  the  first  green 

74 


FERNS  AND    THEIR  RELATIVES 

scale  is  brown  and  shrivelled,  because  the  little  upright 
leaves  have  gone  to  work  and  can  do  without  it.  In  a 
month  or  so  the  little  plant  will  begin  to  look  quite 
like  a  young  fern;  there  will  be  a  minute  underground 
stem,  a  number  of  branching  roots,  and  new  leaves  that 
look  more  and  more  like  grown  up  fern  leaves.  But  it  will 
be  several  years  before  the  plant  will  be  fully  grown  and 
bears  spores;  then  it  may  last  for  many  years,  that  is,  the 
leaves  each  spring  will  make  more  food  than  they  need  for 
themselves  and  their  spores,  and  will  send  it  down  to  the 
underground  stem  for  the  benefit  of  the  next  season 's  leaves. 
Examine  the  underground  stem  of  the  larger  ferns  you  have 
collected,  and  see  if  you  do  not  find  traces  of  the  leaves 
of  other  years. 

The  little  fern  growing  from  the  spore  in  Fig.  30,  is  a 
golden-back  fern,  and  one  a  year  or  two  older  is  pictured 
in  Fig.  27,  No.  3.  Everybody  in  California  knows  and 
loves  this  fern.  The  golden  dust  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaf,  is  so  abundant  that  it  leaves  a  beautiful  golden  imprint 
if  you  press  a  leaf  against  a  dark  dress.  This  powder  is 
really  a  sort  of  wax,  similar  to  the  bloom  on  some  leaves 
and  fruits.  Perhaps  you  can  guess  one  of  its  uses.  You 
know  how  quickly  ferns  wither  when  you  pick  them.  This 
is  because  the  leaf  cells  have  thin  walls  that  give  off  moisture 
readily.  If  these  cells  had  thick  walls  the  water  current 
that  carries  raw  material  to  the  leaves  would  move  too 
slowly,  for  ferns  grow  in  shaded  places  and,  in  California, 
do  much  of  their  food-making  during  the  winter.  But  the 
wax-like  coating  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves  protects 
the  layer  of  cells  against  evaporation;  so  when  hot,  dry 
days  come,  you  will  see  golden-back  leaves  curl  up,  leaving 
only  the  under  surface  exposed;  if  the  dry  weather  does 
not  last  too  long,  the  leaves  will  revive  with  moisture,  but 
unless  these  ferns  grow  in  very  sheltered  places,  they  die 
down  to  the  ground  before  the  dry  season  is  over. 

75 


Fig.  27.   SOME;  KARI^Y  FRONDS. 

1.  Maiden  hair.    2.  Coffee  fern.    3.  Golden-back. 

76 


FERNS  AND    THEIR  RELATIVES 

But  the  golden  dust  serves  another  purpose.  The 
golden-back,  like  other  ferns,  has  its  pores,  or  openings, 
through  the  leaf-skin,  on  the  underside  only.  These  pores 
close  when  the  plant  is  in  danger  of  losing  too  much  water, 
but  much  of  the  time  they  need  to  be  open  to  allow  the 
water  current  to  pass  out  and  to  assist  in  breathing,  so 
these  pores  must  not  be  choked  up  in  any  way.  Now  if 
you  have  looked,  you  know  that  dew  collects  on  the  under 
side  of  leaves  as  well  as  on  the  upper,  and  it  remains  here 
longer  because  the  sun  cannot  reach  it.  In  the  sorts  of 
places  ferns  frequent,  leaves  are  sometimes  not  wholly  dry 
for  months;  so  you  see  they  need  some  device  to  keep 
their  pores  from  being  stopped  up  by  water.  The  wax- 
like  powder  of  the  golden-back  fern,  acts  like  oil  on  the 
feathers  of  water-birds;  it  prevents  the  leaves  from  being 
wet;  the  water  simply  collects  in  little  drops  that  roll  off, 
and  the  water  current  and  breathing  are  not  hindered. 

As  golden  back  ferns  grow  older,  a  brown  powder, 
too,  appears  on  the  lower  side  of  the  leaves,  first  in  deli- 
cate lines,  later  on  perhaps  covering  the  entire  surface. 
The  microscope  shows  that  every  grain  of  this  brown  pow- 
der is  a  case  full  of  spores.  Some  California  children  know 
where  to  find  the  silver-back  ferns.  Often  young  golden- 
backs  are  mistaken  for  silver-backs,  but  the  real  silver-back 
fern  is  usually  larger  and  hardier  than  its  cousin  with  the 
gold  dust.  The  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  is  thick  skinned 
and  rather  sticky,  and  the  lower  side  is  covered  with  a 
silvery  powder. 

Have  you  ever  thought  what  gives  the  maiden-hair  fern, 
No.  i,  Fig.  27,  its  name?  Look  at  its  stems.  The  Greek 
botanical  name,  Adiantum,  means  not  wet.  Find  out  if 
this  is  a  fitting  name  for  the  fern.  The  silvery  appear- 
ance of  the  leaves  under  water  is  due  to  a  layer  of  air 
between  the  leaf  and  the  water.  So  the  maiden-hair  fern, 
as  well  as  the  golden-back,  knows  how  to  escape  being  choked 

77 


Fig.  28.     FRAGMENTS   OF   SPORE  BEARING    FERN   FRONDS. 

1.  Tip  of  Woodwardia.    2.  Pinnule  of  shield  fern.    3    Lace  fern.    4.  Bird's-foot 

fern.    5.  Tip  of  sword  fern. 


FERNS  AND    THEIR  RELATIVES 

by  water;  and  it  needs  this  protection,  for  it  is  often  found 
growing  in  places  that  are  dripping  with  moisture  for  weeks 
at  a  time.  The  leaves  of  the  maiden-hair  are  very  thin, 
that  is,  the  green  cells  are  spread  out  so  as  to  be  well  ex- 
posed to  what  light  they  can  get  in  the  shaded  canons 
where  they  are  found.  You  are  likely  to  find  the  largest 
leaves  in  the  dimmest  canons. 

Can  you  think  why  it  is  better  for  a  thin,  delicate  leaf 
like  the  maiden-hair  to  have  its  area  broken  up  into  little 
leaflets,  than  to  form  an  entire  leaf?  Of  course  these  fine 
divisions  of  the  ferns  make  them  very  attractive  to  us,  but 
they  must  be  of  some  use  to  the  ferns  themselves.  Remem- 
ber that  even  in  sheltered  canons,  heavy  rains  beat  on 
plants,  and  winds  might  tear  them.  You  know  what  hap- 
pens to  big  banana  leaves  in  such  storms.  It  would  be 
very  harmful,  too,  for  fern  leaves  to  shade  one  another. 
If  your  maiden-hair  leaves  are  old  enough,  you  can  see 
where  they  keep  their  spore-cases.  The  little  fragment  in 
the  picture  shows  this. 

The  coffee  fern,  No.  2,  Fig.  27,  turns  back  its  leaf  mar- 
gins like  a  neat  little  hem  to  protect  its  spore-cases,  and  so 
does  the  bird-foot  fern,  No.  4,  Fig.  28.  You  can  think  for 
yourselves  what  gives  these  ferns  their  names.  They  are 
the  most  hardy  of  .all  our  common  ferns.  The  bird-foot 
fern  grows  in  rocky  places  that  are  fully  exposed  to  the 
sun,  yet  the  leaves  usually  survive  the  long  dry  season.  In 
the  winter  you  will  find,  growing  from  the  same  thick, 
fuzzy  underground  stem,  tender  new  leaves  that  the  rains 
have  called  out,  and  the  stiff,  woody  leaves  of  the  past  year. 
The  coffee  fern  seems  to  prefer  more  shaded  places,  but  it  is 
usually  able  to  keep  its  leaves  during  the  dry  season.  Both 
of  these  -ferns,  in  Southern  California  at  least,  make  their 
most  rapid  growth  during  the  winter  months,  when  their 
food-making  might  be  hindered  by  too  much  moisture. 
But  the  rolled  back  leaflets  prevent  the  water  from  clogging 

79 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

up  the  pores  on  the  underside.  So  these  rolled  back  leaf 
margins  serve  at  least  three  purposes  ;  they  protect  the 
spores,  lessen  the  evaporation  from  the  leaves  during  the  dry 
season,  and  prevent  the  pores  from  being  choked  up  during 
the  rainy  season. 

In  the  drier  parts  of  Southern  California,  and  in  moun- 
tains in  different  parts  of  the  state,  there  are  found  several 
kinds  of  exquisite  little  ferns  with  leaves  very  finely 
divided.  They  have  various  names,  such  as  lace  fern,  lip 
fern,  woolly-back  fern,  and  scaly  fern  ;  No.  3,  Fig.  28,  is 
one  leaf  of  a  lace  fern.  Generally  these  ferns  have  a  thick 
skin  or  a  waxen  coat,  or  else  they  are  densely  covered  on 
the  under-side  with  tiny,  overlapping,  woolly  or  papery 
scales,  and  besides  this,  some  of  them  have  the  habit  of 
curling  up  quite  snugly  when  the  weather  is  too  cold  or  too 
hot,  and  uncurling  again  when  better  times  come. 

I/arge,  coarse  ferns  that  grow  in  masses,  are  often 
called  bracken.  There  is  one  kind  that  is  common  in 
California  as  well  as  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world.  In 
Southern  California  you  will  find  it  only  in  the  mountains 
among  the  pines,  or  in  canons  ;  but  in  the  regions  of 
greater  moisture,  it  often  forms  thickets  from  four  to  six 
feet  high,  and  acres  in  extent.  This  fern  seems  to  rejoice 
in  heat  as  well  as  in  moisture  ;  it  attains  its  full  growth  in 
midsummer  and  dies  down  with  the  frost.  In  some 
countries  the  leaves  of  this  fern  are  used  for  thatching  roofs, 
and  it  is  said  that  young  leaves  and  underground  stems  are 
sometimes  cooked  and  eaten. 

Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of  all  our  California  ferns, 
is  the  Woodwardia,  which  grows  in  graceful  clumps  along 
mountain  streams.  The  great  feathery  leaves,  sometimes 
six  or  seven  feet  long,  have  a  tropical  look,  but  they  are 
really  very  hardy.  In  Southern  California  they  survive 
summer  drought  and  winter  frost,  and  cut  leaves  can  be 
kept  in  the  house,  fresh  and  beautiful,  for  weeks.  No.  i, 

80 


FERNS  AND    THEIR  RELATIVES 

Fig.  28,  is  a  fragment  of  one  of  the  leaves.  No.  2,  in  the 
same  cut,  is  a  small  fragment  of  another  of  the  larger  ferns. 
It  is  called-  a  shield  fern  because  the  coverings  for  the 
groups  of  spore-cases  look  like  tiny  shields.  No.  5  is  the 
tip  of  the  leaf  of  another  kind  of  shield  fern.  This  fern  has 
beautiful,  dark  green,  glossy  leaves  that  are  so  slender  and 
stiff  that  the  plant  is  sometimes  called  sword  fern. 

If  you  have  searched  in  moist  places  for  the  first  stages 
of  ferns,  you  have  probably  found  groups  of  other  little,  flat, 
green  bodies  fastened  to  the  soil  by  root-hairs,  but  thicker 
than  the  first  fern  plants.  As  the  season  advances,  some  of 
these  tiny  plants  send  up,  not  little  fern  leaves,  but  tiny 
stalks  that  resemble  toadstools  or  umbrellas,  like  No.  9, 
Fig.  30.  Beneath  each  green  umbrella  are  several  little 
sacs  of  spores,  which  are  very  interesting  under  the  micro- 
scope. These  plants  are  called  liverworts,  and  although 
they  are  so  tiny,  they  know  very  well  how  to  take  care  of 
themselves.  I/ike  the  ferns,  they  must  have  much  moisture 
in  order  to  thrive.  When  dry  days  come  they  curl  up  so 
tightly  that  they  seem  merely  dark  lines  on  the  soil ;  but, 
wet  the  soil ,  and  in  an  hour  or  so  the  little  liverworts  are 
all  uncurled,  and  are  quite  fresh  and  ready  for  work  again. 
There  is  another  kind  of  liverwort,  No.  10,  very  common  in 
green-houses.  It  crowds  in  everywhere,  sometimes  even 
covering  the  sides  of  flower-pots,  and  it  is  not  strange  that 
it  spreads  so  fast,  for  each  full  grown  plant  has  a  little 
pocket  or  two  full  of  green  particles,  every  one  of  which  can 
grow  into  a  new  plant. 

The  true  mosses,  which  form  a  beautiful,  bright  green 
covering  for  damp  soil  and  rocks,  or  even  for  walls  and 
shaded  roofs,  are  cousins  of  the  liverworts.  Many  of  the 
California  mosses  are  very  small,  but  you  can  readily  see 
that  each  tiny  plant  has  root,  stem  and  leaves,  and  you  will 
often  find  the  pretty  little  urns  in  which  they  keep  their 
spores.  Perhaps  you  know  some  moist  shaded  place  where 
6  81 


Fig.  29.     SCOURING    RUSH,  OR   HORSETAIL.  —  Equisetum. 

1.  Sterile  shoot.    2.  Spore-bearing  shoot.    3.  Spore-bearing  branch,  x  5.    4.  Moist 
spore,  x  150.     5,  Dry  spore,"x  150. 


FERNS  AND   THEIR  RELATIVES 

the  mosses  grow  large  and  feathery  or  fern-like.  In 
countries  where  the  weather  is  always  cool  and  moist,  the 
mosses  are  perhaps  the  loveliest  of  all  their  plants. 

Should  you  guess  that  the  plant  in  Fig.  29,  the  scouring 
rush  or  horse-tail,  is  also  a  relative  of  the  ferns?  It  is  even 
more  particular  than  the  fern  about  being  in  a  very  moist 
place.  Very  early  in  the  spring  you  may  find  branches 
like  No.  2,  coming  up  from  a  sturdy  underground  stem. 
Later  on,  stalks  like  No.  i  develop,  and  grow  to  be  several 
feet  high  before  the  summer  is  over.  They  are  harsh  and 
brittle  and  can  be  used  for  scouring.  Think  out  the  use  of 
this  hard  substance  to  the  plants  themselves.  The  stalks 
that  come  up  first  end  in  pretty  cones  several  inches  long. 
You  have  only  to  handle  these  cones  to  see  that  they  are 
covered  with  tiny  branches  that  bear  cases  full  of  green 
spores.  No.  3  is  a  single  branch  enlarged.  If  you  moisten 
some  spores  and  watch  them,  dry  under  the  microscope,  they 
will  seem  to  be  jumping  about  in  a  very  lively  way.  This 
is  because  each  spore  has  four  arms  that  coil  about  it  when  it 
is  moist,  but  spring  back  suddenly  as  the  spore  dries. 
When  these  spores  chance  to  alight  in.  the  right  sort  of 
place,  they  grow  into  little  flat,  green  bodies,  similar  to 
liverworts  or  the  first  stage  of  the  fern  ;  but  the  growth 
from  the  spore  is  very  slow,  so  it  is  best  for*the  old  plants  to 
live  on  ;  and  they  do  live,  probably  for  centuries  ;  that  is, 
the  same  underground  stems  go  on  sending  up  spore-bear- 
ing and  food-making  stems  year  after  year.  In  the  course 
of  time  the  interlacing  and  matted  underground  parts  form 
thick  peat  bogs,  and  in  some  countries  this  peat  is  used  for 
fuel. 

Ferns  and  their  relatives  grow  in  greater  variety,  and 
attain  much  greater  size,  in  countries  that  are  hot  and  moist 
all  the  year  round.  On  the  Island  of  Jamaica  there  are 
places  where  one  can  find  fifty  kinds  of  ferns  in  as  many 
yards.  Some  of  these  tropical  ferns  climb  up  tree  trunks, 

83 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

others  become  themselves  small  trees.  Geologists  tell  us 
that  ages  and  ages  ago  the  earth  must  have  been  very 
densely  covered  with  ferns  and  kindred  plants,  much  larger 
than  those  we  know  to-day.  Our  principal  coal  fields  have 
been  formed  by  these  plants,  so  we  may  sit  by  our  firesides 
and  enjoy  the  sunbeams  imprisoned  by  ferns  and  their 
relatives  countless  years  ago. 


Fig.  30. 

1,  2,  3.  Spore-cases  of  ferns,  x  75.     4,  5,  6.  7.  Early  stages  of  maiden-hair  ferns. 
8.  Fern  prothallium,  magnified  and  diagramatic.    9, 10.    liverworts. 


SOME  EARL  Y  FLO  WERS 


CHAPTER  VII. 


SOME  EARLY  FLOWERS. 

Of  our  many  early  wild  flowers,  which  shall  we 
choose  ?  A  large  flower  that  is  easy  to  understand,  is  best 
to  begin  with,  so  we  will  take  the  peony.  It  is  one  of  the 
earliest,  too  ;  in  some  parts  of  California  its  large  red 
flowers  open  before  Christmas  time. 

It  has  an  underground  stem  and  long,  thick  roots  that 
have  stored  the  food  to  give  it  such  an  early  start.  The 
peony  has  many  large  leaves,  which  stretch  out  to  the  sun, 
let  the  light  through  their  pretty  slashes,  roll  the  moisture 
off  their  smooth  surfaces,  and  behave  generally  like  leaves 
that  must  be  in  haste  to  finish  their  work  before  the  rainy 
season  is  over.  They  are  soon  able  to  replace  the  food  they 
have  used  from  the  storehouse,  but  they  have  other  work 
to  do.  There  must  be  new  peony  plants  ;  that  is,  there  are 
seeds  to  be  made,  and  this  is  the  reason  for  the  flowers. 

In  the  centre  of  the  peony  are  the  three  cases  that  will 
some  day  hold  the  seeds.  These  cases  are  called  pistils. 
The  beginnings  of  the  seeds  are  already  there,  little  white 
bodies,  called  ovules.  The  name  is  made  from  a  Latin 
word  that  means  egg,  for  each  ovule  contains  what  is 
called  an  egg  cell.  The  little  plant  that  a  seed  always  con- 
tains has  not  yet  begun  to  form.  The  part  of  the  pistil  that 
encloses  the  ovules  is  called  the  ovary.  Above  the  ovary, 
at  the  very  top  of  the  pistil,  is  a  pair  of  thin  lips  that  have 
their  inner  surface  sticky.  This  sticky  surface  is  called  the 

85 


Fi«r.  81.     PROXY— 'Pceonia  Californica. 
1     Pistil.    2    Stamen.    3.  Modified  stamen.    4.  Petal.    5  and  6.  Sepals. 


SOME  EARLY  FLOWERS 

stigma.  Surrounding  the  pistils  of  the  peony  are  many 
bodies  like  No.  2,  Fig.  31.  Each  one  is  called  a  stamen,  the 
stem  part  of  it  is  called  the  filament,  and  the  upper  part  the 
anther;  through  two  openings  of  the  anther  escapes  a 
yellow  dust,  which  is  called  pollen  ;  and  very  precious  dust 
it  is,  for  it  is  only  when  some  of  it  reaches  the  stigma  and 
there  grows  down  till  it  unites  with  an  egg  cell  of  an 
ovule,  that  the  little  plant  can  begin  to  grow  ;  that  is,  ovules 
can  not  become  seeds  without  the  help  of  pollen.  Now 
pollen  is  easily  injured,  both  by  cold  and  by  moisture. 
Let  us  see  what  protects  it.  Around  the  stamens  are  two 
circles  of  little  leaves,  the  inner  one  red,  the  outer,  green 
or  purple  and  green.  The  inner  circle  is  called  the  corolla 
and  each  leaf  a  petal,  the  outer  circle  is  called  the  calyx 
and  each  leaf  a  sepal.  In  the  bud,  the  calyx  and  corolla 
are  closely  wrapped  about  the  stamens  ;  as  the  bud  opens, 
they  still  protect  the  pollen,  because  the  flower  faces  down- 
ward and  the  calyx  and  corolla  are  like  a  roof  over  the 
stamens. 

But  why  should  the  bud  have  opened  at  all,  if  it  is  only 
necessary  that  the  pollen  fall  on  the  stigma  ?  Could  not 
this  happen  even  better  in  the  bud  ?  We  enjoy  the  open 
flowers  with  their  pretty  colors,  but  of  what  use  to  the 
plant  is  their  opening  ?  Some  great  naturalists  have  tried 
to  work  out  the  answers  to  these  questions,  and  this  is 
what  they  seem  to  have  proved.  Nature  prefers  that 
flowers  should  not  work  alone  at  seed-making,  for  the  best 
seeds  result  when  flowers  help  each  other,  when  each  gets 
the  pollen  for  seed-making  from  some  other.  In  fact  many 
flowers  are  so  arranged  that  their  own  pollen  cannot  reach 
the  stigmas.  The  peony  keeps  its  stigmas  quite  beyond  its 
anthers,  and  the  pollen  cannot  easily  fall  on  them.  As  soon 
as  a  peony  bud  begins  to  open,  the  stigmas,  all  ready  for 
pollen,  stand  on  guard  at  the  entrance.  What  is  to  bring 
pollen  to  them  ?  If  you  have  fresh  flowers,  you  will  find 

87 


Fig.  32.     BUTTERCUP— Ranunculus  California. 


SOME  EARL  Y  FLO  WERS 

that  among  the  stamens  are  yellow,  cushion-like  bodies, 
covered  with  honey.  Now  bees  and  other  insects  have 
found  out  about  this  honey,  and  if  they  have  been  to  older 
flowers  for  it,  they  are  covered  with  pollen.  When  once 
bees  begin  to  visit  peonies,  they  visit  every  peony  in  sight 
before  calling  on  other  flowers,  and  when  they  discover 
this  opening  bud  and  enter  it,  they  must  strike  the  stigmas 
and  rub  off  some  of  the  pollen  on  them ;  so  our  peony  gets 
pollen  for  seed-making  from  some  other  flower.  The 
botanists  call  this,  cross  pollination.  You  can  see 
now  why  such  flowers  should  not  be  green  ;  the  color 
helps  the  insect  to  find  the  flower.  The  odor,  too,  is  an 
advertisement. 

The  buttercup  is  first  cousin  to  the  peony,  though  you 
may  not  see  any  family  resemblance  ;  we  will  talk  of  that 
in  some  other  chapter.  It  has  not  such  ample  storehouses 
as  the  peony,  but  there  is  some  food  stored  in  its  short 
underground  stem  and  its  little  clustered  roots,  which  sur- 
vive the  dry  season.  Its  leaves  resemble  the  peony  leaves, 
and  behave  in  much  the  same  way,  but  its  flowers,  instead 
of  hanging  down  their  heads,  look  straight  at  the  sun  and 
follow  it  all  day  long.  As  the  flowers  grow  older  the  green 
sepals,  which  in  the  bud  help  in  food-making,  turn  yellow, 
bend  back,  and  finally  fall  off  entirely  ;  they  really  are  not 
needed,  because  there  are  so  many  bright  varnished  petals 
to  glisten  in  the  sun.  If  you  were  a  bee  flying  toward  this 
flower,  you  would  see  something  else  glistening, — a  tiny 
drop  of  honey  at  the  base  of  every  petal. 

Now  study  the  flowers  to  see  how  the  bees  repay  them 
for  their  hospitality.  A  buttercup  has  many  little  pistils, 
each  of  which  has  an  ovary,  containing  just  one  ovule,  and  a 
wee,  fuzzy  stigma  at  the  very  top.  There  are  also  many 
stamens.  Find  a  flower  that  has  just  opened  for  the  first 
time.  The  stigmas  will  be  ready  for  pollen,  and  the 
stamens  will  be  standing  back  in  a  compact  ring,  not  yet 

89 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

shedding  pollen.  Next  examine  an  older  flower.  The 
inner  stamens  have  risen  up  and  covered  the  stigmas,  their 
pollen  still  unshed ,  but  the  outer  stamens  are  shedding 
pollen  directly  away  from  the  stigmas.  Keep  this  flower  in 
water  and  examine  it  from  day  to  day.  It  will  behave  very 
nearly  as  it  does  out  of  doors,  closing  at  night  to  protect  the 
pollen.  You  will  see  that  the  buttercup  takes  nearly  a  week 
to  shed  its  pollen,  the  inner  anthers  rising  and  taking  the 
place  of  the  outer  ones  when  they  are  empty.  Now  dur- 
ing all  this  time  a  bee  or  any  other  large  insect  visiting  the 
flower  for  honey,  is  sure  to  carry  away  some  pollen,  not 
because  it  is  sure  to  alight  in  the  center  of  the  flower,  and 
so  must  reach  over  the  anthers  to  get  the  honey.  You  may 
often  see  a  brisk  little  bee  double  himself  over  the  ring  of 
stamens  and  make  a  complete  circuit  of  them  as  he  sucks 
up  every  drop  of  honey.  He  is  a  very  dusty  bee  when  he 
leaves  the  flower,  and  if  he  goes  next  to  a  newly  opened 
flower,  many  of  its  stigmas  will  get  the  grains  of  pollen 
they  need  for  seed-making. 

So  the  buttercup,  with  its  honest,  round,  shining  face, 
is  well  paid  for  its  generous  hospitality.  But  the  buttercup 
knows  nothing  about  economy  or  exclusiveness.  Its  bill 
of  fare  is  well  advertised,  and  all  may  come  ;  any  insect, 
large  or  small,  can  get  its  honey  and  the  pollen  that  collects 
in  its  petals,  and  little  beetles,  small  flies  and  other  tiny, 
gauzy  creatures  often  alight  on  the  petals,  take  pollen  or 
honey,  and  go  away  without  touching  anthers  or  stigma. 

There  are  some  flowers,  however,  that  know  how  to 
exclude  such  useless  guests ;  the  cluster  lily,  for  instance. 
It  may  trouble  you  to  make  out  the  calyx  and  corolla  of  the 
cluster  lily.  Really  there  are  three  sepals  and  three  petals, 
but  they  are  all  united  to  form  one  purple  cup.  The  six 
stamens,  as  you  can  see  by  laying  the  flower  open,  grow  on 
the  inner  surface  of  the  cup,  three  of  them  having*  longer 
anthers  than  the  other  three.  Back  of  these  long  anthers 

90 


Fig.  33.     CLUSTER  LIIyY— Brodicea  capita 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

are  pairs  of  white,  pointed  "appendages,"  the  botanists 
would  say.  These  white  teeth  fit  closely  together  and 
nearly  close  the  flower;  they,  of  course,  protect  the  pollen, 
and  the  cluster  lily  needs  neither  to  hang  its  flowers  down 
nor  to  close  them  at  night.  But  the  appendages  have  other 
uses.  Down  at  the  very  base  of  the  cup  is  a  little  ring  of 
honey  ;  these  white  points  form  a  conical  cover  for  the  cup, 
leaving  just  a  bit  of  an  entrance  at  the  top.  So  only 
insects  with  long  slender  tongues  or  wee  insects,  called 
thrips,  can  get  the  cluster  lily's  honey. 

The  pistil  of  the  cluster  lily  differs  from  those  we  have 
noticed  before.  The  ovary  really  consists  of  three  little 
rooms,  or  cells,  as  they  are  called.  Above  the  ovary  is  a 
white  stem  called  the  style,  and  at  its  top  are  three  little 
lines  of  fuzz  ;  these  are  the  stigmas,  and  they  are  quite 
ready  for  pollen  when  the  bud  begins  to  open.  So,  like  the 
peony  stigmas,  they  guard  the  entrance  to  the  honey  in  the 
bud,  and  are  sure  to  be  struck  by  the  bee's  or  butterfly's 
tongue.  Now,  if  the  guest  has  first  visited  an  older  flower, 
he  must  have  touched  the  anthers,  because  they  are  close 
to  the  narrow  opening  left  by  the  appendages ;  so  every 
guest  that  comes  from  an  older  to  a  younger  flower  effects 
cross  pollination. 

Examining  the  stamens  carefully,  you  will  see  that  the 
three  long  anthers  open  at  the  side,  and  so  shed  pollen  for 
the  benefit  of  other  flowers,  but  that  the  three  short  anthers 
discharge  their  pollen  directly  on  the  stigmas.  The  cluster 
lily,  then,  seems  not  to  trust  its  guests  entirely,  but  after  a 
little,  pollinates  itself.  This  lily  is  rather  ungenerous  as 
well  as  exclusive,  for  it  serves  only  a  little  honey  at  the  bot- 
tom of  its  deep,  covered  cups.  It  seems  to  invite  large 
bees  ;  the  cup  is  not  too  deep  for  their  tongues,  and  blue  is 
supposed  to  be  their  favorite  color  ;  but  the  practical  bees 
are  quick  to  learn  that  there  is  little  honey,  and  they  rarely 
visit  the  lilies  when  more  generous  flowers  are  near.  But- 

92 


SOME  EARLY  FLOWERS 

terflies  are  more  dainty,  and  come  more  frequently  ;  but  it 
is  well  that  the  flowers  can  pollinate  themselves. 

The  rest  of  the  cluster  lily  plant,  also,  is  interesting. 
You  remember  how  the  first  leaf  broke  through  the  soil 
after  the  first  heavy  rain  ;  if  you  kept  on  watching  the 
lilies,  you  know  that  the  leaves  grew  rapidly,  standing 
straight  up  to  get  the  full  sunlight ;  by  digging  now,  you 
can  find  how  much  food  they  have  sent  down  to  be  stored 
for  next  year's  plants ;  they  have  made  a  new  bulb  on  top 
of  the  old  one,  and  perhaps  have  had  food  enough  to  send 
out  a  little  colony  of  side  bulbs.  By  this  time,  the  work  of 
the  leaves  is  nearly  over,  and  they  are  dying  back,  for  they 
have  no  devices  for  meeting  dry  weather. 

But  the  early  flowers  we  love  best  of  all,  are  the  violets 
and  shooting  stars.  They,  too,  have  underground  store- 
houses, and  this  is  fortunate  for  the  children  of  the  future, 
because  we  of  to-day  pick  so  many  early  wild  flowers  that 
we  give  them  little  chance  to  mature  seeds.  The  violet,  or 
yellow  pansy,  as  it  is  often  called,  is,  like  the  cluster  lily, 
an  exclusive  flower.  It  keeps  its  honey,  in  a  cup,  or  spur, 
at  the  base  of  the  flower,  and  the  yellow  petals  have  many 
purple  lines  pointing  the  way  to  it — honey  guides,  they  are 
called.  The  petals  are  not  all  alike  ;  the  lower  one  is 
broad,  forming  a  platform  for  the  guest  to  stand  upon  when 
he  comes  for  honey.  The  violet,  too,  invites  only  guests 
with  slender  tongues.  You  can  see  the  little  green  stigma 
close  against  the  lower  petal,  just  where  it  must  be  struck 
by  a  tongue  in  search  of  honey.  To  find  out  about  the 
pollen,  you  must  tear  away  the  petals  ;  the  stamens  have 
no  filaments,  and  the  anthers  are  close  together,  forming  a 
little  box  about  the  ovary.  The  tops  of  the  anthers  and 
the  petals  quite  enclose  this  box  and  protect  the  pollen 
well. 

You  may  have  to  watch  a  long  time  out  of  doors  to 
see  the  violet  visited.  Really,  her  honey  is  so  difficult  to 

93 


Fig.  34.    VIOLET— Viola  pedunculate 


SOME  EARLY  FLOWERS 

get,  that  her  guests  are  few.  But  bees  sometimes  come  ;  a 
bee  alights  on  the  platform  petal  and  thrusts  in  his  tongue  ; 
but  he  seems  unable  to  get  honey  in  this  way,  so  he  whirls 
about  and  clings,  head  downward,  to  the  upper  petals  while 
he  sucks  up  the  honey.  In  this  process  he  must  rattle  out 
much  pollen  on  his  tongue.  He  does  not  usually  strike 
the  stigma  as  he  leaves  the  flower;  but  takes  the  pollen  to 
another  flower,  and  so  cross  pollinates  it. 

The  shooting  star  has  the  gayest  dress  of  all  our  early 
flowers.  There  are  bands  of  crimson,  purple  and  gold  on 
the  delicate  rose  or  lilac  petals,  which  shade  into  white. 
Should  you  not  expect  such  an  elegant  flower  to  provide  a 
bountiful  feast  ?  Really,  fine -lady  shooting  star  is  not  in 
the  least  hospitable.  She  serves  no  honey  at  all,  and  a  guest 
that  would  come  for  pollen  has  actually  no  place  to  stand, 
but  must  hang,  back  downward,  from  the  gorgeous  stamens. 
Yet  she  expects  guests  to  carry  pollen,  for  the  bit  of  a 
stigma  is  quite  beyond  the  anthers,  and  at  first  faces  down- 
ward. She  takes  good  care  of  her  pollen.  The  puffy, 
purple  filaments  are  grown  together  so  that  the  anthers  are 
held  closely  together  and  the  pollen  is  kept  in  until  some- 
thing disturbs  the  flower.  Besides  this,  the  flower  hangs 
downward  and  the  petals  form  a  roof.  You  may  watch  for 
a  long  time  on  a  hillside  covered  with  shooting  stars  before 
you  see  a  guest,  but  bees  do  come  sometimes.  Of  course, 
they  strike  the  stigma  first,  and  then  get  a  fresh  supply  of 
pollen  on  the  under  side  of  the  body.  Think  whether  this 
is  cross  pollination.  But  the  shooting  star  finds  it  necessary 
to  look  out  for  herself  later  on.  As  the  flower  gets  older, 
the  anthers  shrink,  and,  at  the  slightest  jar,  the  pollen 
comes  out  in  little  clouds  ;  strike  one  and  see.  At  the  same 
time  the  style  turns  upward  and  the  stigma  at  the  tip  is  so 
placed  that  the  pollen  falls  on  it ;  in  this  way  the  flower  is 
self  pollinated. 

The  cluster  lily  and  shooting  star  keep  their  flowers  in 

95 


Fig.  35.     SHOOTING  STAR— T)j.ff catio 


SOME  EARL  Y  FLO  WERS 

clusters,  and  this  plan  has  many  advantages.  One  stalk 
will  raise  them  up  where  they  can  be  seen  by  insects  ;  they 
are  more  conspicuous  in  the  mass  than  if  they  were  alone  ; 
bees  can  visit  them  more  quickly,  and  a  cluster  lasts  much 
longer  than  a  single  flower  ;  the  shooting  star  clusters  last 
several  weeks;  the  cluster  lily  three  or  four  months;  while  a 
single  buttercup,  violet,  or  peony  keeps  its  petals  only  a 
few  days.  As  the  seeds  of  all  these  wild  flowers  ripen,  the 
plant  must  have  some  device  to  scatter  them.  Two  of  the 
plants  shake  out  their  seeds,  two  fling  them,  and  the  other 
has  tiny  hooks  that  help.  Find  out  all  about  them  for 
yourselves. 

In  collecting  these  wild  flowers  you  have  probably 
already  found  several  other  sorts.  In  moist,  shady  places 
you  would  be  almost  sure  to  find  the  little  chickweed  and 
the  miner's  lettuce.  This  chickweed  is  one  of  several  kinds 
that  are  world-wide  weeds.  The  miner's  lettuce  was  used 
for  salad  by  the  miners  in  early  days.  Some  of  the  other 
early  flowers  will  be  referred  to  later  on,  others  you  will 
have  to  study  by  yourselves. 

In  your  gardens,  too,  are  early  flowers  that  you  can 
easily  watch  and  study  by  yourselves,  the  calla,  for  instance. 
What  a  fine  storehouse  it  has !  We  usually  give  it  no  time 
to  rest  in  our  gardens  because  we  water  it  all  the  year 
round,  but  if  it  is  kept  dry  in  the  summer,  it  will  take  a 
rest,  and  begin  life  again  very  vigorously  in  the  winter.  Be 
sure  to  notice  the  little  side  shoots  from  the  main  store- 
house stem.  Each  one  can  become  a  separate  plant,  and, 
as  they  break  off  very  readily,  it  is  not  easy  to  rid  a  garden 
of  callas  after  they  have  once  become  established  there. 

Notice  the  leaves  and  leaf-stems  of  the  calla;  try  to 
imagine  where  the  water  falling  on  them  in  a  rain  would 
run  off;  watch  and  see.  The  grooves  or  channels  carry  it 
toward  the  centre,  and  it  reaches  the  ground  just  where  it 
will  most  benefit  the  underground  stem  with  its  short  roots. 

7  97 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


Fig.  36.     CALLA. 


SOME  EARLY  FLOWERS 

The  leaves  of  the  other  early  plants  we  have  been  studying 
do  this  in  a  less  degree.  Contrast  this  with  what  becomes 
of  the  rainfall  on  an  oak,  or  some  similar  tree.  You  often 
seek  shelter  under  a  tree  during  a  rain,  because  little  of  the 
water  reaches  the  ground  directly  beneath  the  tree,  but  at 
the  circumference  what  a  drenching  you  would  get.  If  you 
have  ever  seen  a  tree  uprooted,  you  know  that  the  fine 
roots  that  take  in  water  are  in  just  this  region. 

But  let  us  return  to  the  calla  and  examine  what  is  com- 
monly called  the  flower  or  the  lily.  The  yellow  column  in 
the  centre  you  can  break  up  into  many  little  bodies  that 
give  out  white  powder  from  their  tops;  these  must  be 
anthers.  At  the  base  are  many  little  bodies  that  are  clearly 
pistils.  Now  the  botanists  call  each  pistil  of  the  calla  a 
flower,  and  each  stamen  a  flower,  so  the  yellow  column  is 
really  a  flower  cluster,  and  the  big  white  wrapping,  which 
you  have  called  the  flower,  protects  the  flower  cluster  ana 
serves  another  purpose  beside.  When  this  white  wrapping 
begins  to  unroll,  you  will  find  the  stigmas  down  at  the 
bottom  ready  for  pollen,  but  the  anthers  will  not  shed 
pollen  for  some  time.  Now  the  bottom  of  the  newly  opened 
calla  is  a  very  cosy  place  for  little  insects  to  rest  or  spend 
the  night;  it  affords  some  shelter,  and  is  really  much  warmer 
than  the  outside  world.  If  insects  that  have  been  getting 
pollen  from  older  callas  come  to  this  opening  one  for  shelter, 
they  will  cross  pollinate  it.  L,ook  for  insects  in  your  calla. 

The, Chinese  lily  is  easily  watched,  and  so  is  the  iris, 
or  flag,  that  will  be  in  flower  a  little  later. 


99 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE   AWAKENING  OF  THE  TREES. 

The  willows  awaken  first;  in  fact  some  willows  hardly 
seem  to  nap  at  all.  In  autumn  we  saw  them  beginning  to 
rid  themselves  of  their  leaves,  but  before  the  old  leaves 
were  quite  gone,  the  brown  buds  along  the  stems  were 
showing  signs  of  life.  Before  Christmas,  perhaps,  some  of 
the  buds  had  thrown  off  these  outside  wraps,  and  had  ap- 
peared in  their  inner  coats  of  silky  gray  fur.  Then  we 
said  the  pussy  willows  were  coming  out.  Some  of  these 
pussy-like  buds  were  clearly  baby  leaves  curled  up  to- 
gether; others  were  what  even  the  botanists  call  catkins, 
which  means  little  cats.  As  the  catkins  grew  longer,  it 
was  easy  to  see  that  the  gray  coat  was,  like  an  old-time 
armour,  made  of  overlapping  scales,  and  indeed  it  was  an 
armour  against  Jack  Frost  and  other  foes  of  the  tender 
plants.  Soon  some  catkins  that  grew  in  sunny  places  be- 
came yellow  and  fluffy  and  were  covered  with  golden  dust. 
Perhaps  you  can  find  some  such  catkins  still,  and  can  see 
that  they  are  fluffy  because  stamens  have  pushed  out  from 
beneath  every  little  scale;  the  yellow  dust  is  the  pollen  they 
are  shedding. 

But  there  is  something  else  beneath  every  little  scale, 
as  the  bees  know  very  well;  it  is  a  very  tiny,  green  peg 
covered  with  honey.  Out  of  doors  on  a  fine  day,  you  can 
see  how  these  minute  drops  of  honey  glisten  in  the  sun , 

100 


Fig.  37.    WIIyI,OW. 
1.  Staminate  flowers.     2.  Pistillate  flowers. 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

and  throngs  of  bees  comedo  this  feast  the  willow  provides. 
Often  the  humming  of  the  bees  helps  one  to  find  the  tree. 
You  can  watch  the  bees  as  closely  as  you  like;  they  are  too 
busy  to  mind  you  in  the  least,  for  they  are  really  doing  two 
things-  at  once;  they  are  circling  round  and  round  the  cat- 
kins sucking  up  the  honey,  and  at  the  same  time  they  are 
brushing  off  the  pollen  that  clings  to  their  bodies,  and 
packing  it  away  in  the  pollen  baskets  on  their  legs. 
The  bees  will  have  many  babies  to  feed,  and  the  pollen  is 
just  what  they  need  to  store  for  them. 

But  you  find  willow  trees  with  catkins  that  are  not 
yellow.  Instead  of  stamens,  a  single  pistil  has  pushed  out 
from  beneath  each  scale.  Bach  pistil  has  a  little  box  for 
seed,  the  ovary,  and  two,  tiny,  moist  stigmas  to  catch  the 
pollen.  Bach  of  these  flowers,  too,  has  its  drop  of  honey 
for  the  bees. 

Now  let  us  think  out  how  the  willows  are  rewarded 
for  all  this  hospitality.  The  trees  that  have  pistils  are 
the  seed-makers,  but  they  must  have  pollen  in  order  to 
make  good  seed,  and  the  pollen  is  found  on  other  trees. 
Perhaps  the  wind  carries  some  pollen  for  the  willows,  but 
the  wind  is  a  wasteful  servant,  and  the  willows  prefer  to 
pay  the  bees  to  do  their  work.  And  this  is  how  the  bees 
help  the  willows.  On  the  catkins  that  bear  stamens  the 
bees  fill  their  baskets  with  pollen  for  their  own  use,  but 
they  also  carry  away  very  many  grains  that  cling  to  their 
bodies.  When  they  fly  to  other  trees  to  get  the  honey 
among  the  pistils,  the  precious  dust  is  rubbed  off  on  the 
rough,  moist  stigmas,  where  each  little  grain  can  grow  and 
help  to  make  a  seed. 

And  so  it  happens  that  on  the  seed-making  trees 
every  catkin  has  its  many  pistils  well  supplied  with  seeds. 
You  have  seen  these  seeds  bursting  from  their  tiny  pods 
and  floating  about  on  their  white  wings.  You  can  see  how 
light  they  are  and  can  imagine  how  the  winds  will  carry 

102 


Fig.  :j8.     YOUNG    SHOOTS. 
1.  Alder.     2.  Poplar,  or  cotton  wood.     3.  Sycamore.    4.    Fisr.     f>.  \Vnlmit. 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

them  far  away  from  the  parent  tree.  In  the  midst  of  our 
deserts  many,  many  miles  from  willow-bordered  streams, 
artesian  wells  are  sometimes  bored,  and  at  once,  as  if  by 
magic,  little  willow  trees  begin  to  grow  around  the  pools. 

The  sycamore  buds  that  we  found  during  the  summer 
were  snugly  hidden  within  hollowed-out  leaf  stems.  As 
the  old  leaves  fell  we  found  that  the  buds  had  other  cover- 
ings of  brown,  varnished  scales;  and  very  good  waterproof 
coats  these  are,  protecting  from  dry  winds  and  cold  as  well 
as  from  rain.  The  buds  do  not  venture  to  discard  their 
coats  until  March  or  April,  and  then  each  leaf  is  seen  to 
be  clad  in  thick,  brown  wool.  There  is  a  brown,  woolly  col- 
lar, too,  wrapped  about  every  leaf,  but  this  wrapping  in- 
stead of  falling  off,  becomes  bright  green  and  helps  in  the 
food-making.  Some  of  the  buds,  as  they  unfold,  hang  out 
little  balls  strung  on  slender  stems.  The  balls  are  the 
flower  clusters.  Find  out  for  yourselves  which  provide 
pollen,  and  which  are  the  seed-makers.  The  sycamore  has 
both  kinds  of  flowers  on  the  same  tree,  and  trusts  to  the 
wind  to  carry  pollen.  The  larger  balls  that  have  been 
hanging  on  the  trees  all  winter,  were  flower  clusters  just  a 
year  ago,  and  now  they  are  nearly  ready  to  send  their  seeds 
out  into  the  world.  Perhaps  as  you  handle  them,  they 
will  suddenly  crumble  into  a  fluffy  mass.  On  the  trees 
they  break  up  so  suddenly  that  they  almost  seem  to  ex- 
plode, and  the  wind  carries  the  seeds  far  and  wide  on  their 
downy  floaters. 

The  bud  coverings  of  cotton  woods,  or  poplars,  are 
much  varnished,  and  the  young  leaves,  too,  prefer  varnish 
to  woolly  or  silken  coats.  Notice  how  the  leaves  are 
rolled  in  the  bud.  The  alder  leaves  are  folded  like  fans, 
and  they  too  have  varnish  enough  to  look  very  shining 
and  new  as  they  unfold  in  the  sunlight.  Both  of  these 
trees  flower  early,  before  the  leaves  appear,  and  the  wind 
carries  pollen  for  them. 

104 


THE  A  WAKENING  OF  THE   TREES 


The  walnut  flowers  come  later, 
and  the  leaves  overtake  them  and  get 
in  the  way  of  the  pollen-carrying. 
The  statninate  flowers  grow  in  catkins 
and  drop  pollen  on  their  neighbors' 
backs  in  little  heaps  that  will  rise 
like  a  cloud  with  the  first  breeze. 
You  can  find  baby  walnuts  not  as 
large  as  peas.  Be  sure  to  notice  that 
every  one  has  a  big  rough  stigma  to 
catch  the  pollen  in  order  to  make  the 
little  plant  grow  within  its  shell. 
Now  the  little  plants  within  the  nut 
shells  are  richly  provided  with  food,  a 
sort  of  food  that  we  like  to  eat  our- 
selves, and  so  do  the  squirrels  and 
other  animals.  You  can  think,  then, 
why  the  walnut  needs  the  bitter  green 
rind  until  the  inner  shells  are  hard. 
The  rinds  turn  brown  finally,  and  are 
nearly  the  color  of  the  ground,  but 
the  squirrels'  sharp  eyes  can  find 
them  out,  and  their  sharp  teeth  can 
gnaw  through  the  shells.  Still 
some  nuts  escape  their  foes,  or  are 
buried  by  them,  and  from  these  seeds 
new  walnut  trees  spring  up  on  our 
hillsides. 

In  our  orchards,  too,  there  is  the 
spring  time  awakening  of  the  trees. 
The  apricot  and  peach  trees  are  like 
clouds  of  pale  rose  or  pink,  and 
through  the  snowy  pear  blossoms  the 
tender  green  leaves  are  seen.  There 


*-// 


105 


Fig.  39.   PEACH   BLOSSOMS 


CALIFORNIA   PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


iMg.  40.     PINK    AND    CYPRKSs. 

1.  Staminate  flowers  of  pine.    2.  Young  pine  cone.    3.  Staminate  flowers  of 
cypress.    4,  5,  G.  Development  of  cypress  cone. 

106 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE    TREES 

is  fragrance  and  honey,  and  the  bees  come  in  throngs  and 
carry  pollen  from  flower  to  flower,  and  from  tree  to  tree. 
And  so,  as  the  petals  fall,  the  little  fruits  begin  to  appear. 
Watch  them  as  they  grow.  Perhaps  you  will  discover 
that  the  apple  and  quince  behave  differently  from  the  peach, 
apricot  and  cherry.  Did  you  ever  think  why  fruits  should 
be  green  and  unfit  to  eat  before  the  seeds  are  ripe,  or  of 
what  use  to  the  trees  are  the  bright  colors  and  delicious 
flavors  of  ripe  fruits  ? 

Do  you  know  the  secret  of  the  fig  trees,  that  a  fig  is 
really  a  hollow  stem  with  flowers  inside?  The  fig  trees 
common  in  California  orchards  have  pistillate  flowers  only. 
You  can  easily  see  this  for  yourselves  in  young  figs.  Since 
there  are  no  flowers  with  stamens  to  provide  pollen,  the 
pistils  are  not  able  to  make  good  seeds,  so  we  must  get 
new  fig  trees  by  planting  cuttings  from  old  ones.  Fig 
trees  have  been  brought  to  California  from  other  countries. 
In  their  home  country  there  are  many  fig  trees  that  pro- 
duce pollen-bearing  flowers,  and  the  pollen  is  carried  by 
very  wee  wasps  that  can  crawl  through  the  tiny  openings 
at  the  end  of  the  fig. 

There  are  other  trees,  as  you  know,  that  never  drop 
all  their  leaves  and  take  a  complete  rest;  but  most  of  them 
are  sluggish  during  the  autumn  and  early  winter,  and  in 
the  early  spring  time  they,  too,  are  awakened  to  more 
active  life.  The  live  oak  puts  on  a  beautiful  new  spring 
dress  of  pale  green,  and  hangs  out  long  catkins  that  fur- 
nish pollen.  If  you  have  sharp  eyes,  you  can  find  the 
tiny  flowers  that  will  become  acorns  if  the  wind  brings 
the  pollen. 

The  pine  trees  cautiously  push  out  fresh  green  needles. 
They  produce  also  clusters  of  pale  yellow  cones,  filled  to 
bursting  with  flour}'  pollen.  At  the  slightest  jar,  the  pollen 
rises  in  yellow  clouds  ;  in  pine  forests  the  lumbermen  call 
these  clouds  sulphur  showers.  If  you  look  at  these  pollen 

107 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

grains  under  the  microscope,  you  will  understand  why  they 
rise ;  every  one  is  provided  with  two  air  bladders,  each  as 
large  as  itself,  and  these  serve  as  floaters.  So,  although  the 
seed-making  cones  are  usually  high  up  in  the  trees,  they 
get  plenty  of  pollen.  See  if  you  can  find  pollen-producing 
and  seed-making  cones  on  the  cypress  or  other  trees  in 
parks  or  gardens.  Find  out  if  other  evergreen  trees,  the 
orange,  Hucalyptus,  pepper,  acacia  and  so  forth,  have  the 
spring  time  awakening ;  perhaps  irrigation  interferes  with 
the  natural  habits  of  some  of  these  trees. 

Then  there  are  the  smaller  trees,  the  shrubs  as  we  call 
them.  Some  are  wakened  by  the  first  rains.  There  are 
California  lilacs  that  send  out  flowers  in  December,  and 
other  kinds  that  take  their  places  later  on.  So  for  several 
months  there  are  sunny  slopes  that  are  misty-blue  with  lilac 
flowers.  Bach  tiny  delicate  flower  spreads  a  feast  for  insect 
guests,  but  later  on,  puts  pollen  on  its  own  stigmas. 

The  poison  oak  is  one  of  the  first  shrubs  to  waken  and 
several  of  its  relatives  have  winter  or  early  spring  flowers. 
The  currant-gooseberry  family,  have  very  early  habits. 
Before  the  lovely  pink  and  white  currant  flowers  and  the 
fuchsia-like  gooseberries  are  gone,  other  kinds  are  in 
flower.  There  are  slender,  yellow  currant  flowers  that 
furnish  honey  to  the  earliest  wild  bees,  and  long,  scarlet 
gooseberry  flowers  that  entertain  humming  birds  and  the 
largest  bees.  The  blackberries  are  quite  awake  in  March. 
In  some  parts  of  the  state,  tree  poppies  flourish  on  moun- 
tain sides  or  in  sandy  washes. 

Before  the  snows  have  disappeared  from  the  mountains, 
the  manzanita  bursts  into  bloom  ;  and  such  exquisite 
flowers  as  they  are,  those  pink  and  white  waxen  bells  ! 
Their  delicacy  is  a  surprise  too,  for  the  manzanita  is  a  very 
rugged  plant.  Its  thick,  red  stems  branch  and  twist  and 
interweave  so  that  they  form  an  almost  impassable  thicket, 
and  the  sturdy  leaves  stand  erect  and  brave  summer  heat 

108 


THE  AWAKENING   OF  THE   TREES 

and  winter  snows.  The  flowers  provide  so  much  honey 
that  humming  birds  are  glad  to  come  with  the  bees.  The 
stamens  are  like  little  pepper  boxes,  and  the  guests  must 
strike  the  handles  and  shake  out  the  pollen.  The  madrone, 
which  is  larger  than  the  manzanita,  has  quite  as  wonderful 
flowers. 

There  are  many  other  interesting  mountain  shrubs  that 
help  make  up  what  we  call  chaparral.  In  summer  time  the 
wild  mahogany  has  little  fruits  with  silky,  silver-gray 
plumes,  and  the  greasewood  fairly  whitens  the  mountain 
slopes  with  its  plume-like  flower  clusters.  The  wild  cherries 
bloom  earlier  ;  some  of  them  have  very  beautiful  evergreen 
leaves. 

Higher  up  in  the  mountains  in  Southern  California,  but 
nearer  the  valleys  and  coasts  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
state,  are  the  majestic  cone-bearing  trees  ;  the  cypresses, 
redwoods,  the  big  trees,  firs  and  pines,  trees  that  have  few 
equals  in  the  wide  world.  John  Muir,  who  knows  and 
loves  California  mountains  so  well,  has  written  much  about 
these  trees,  and  they  have  other  friends  who  write  and 
speak  eloquently  about  them,  and  who  are  making  great 
efforts  to  preserve  our  forests.  But  after  all,  their  beauty 
and  grandeur  cannot  be  expressed  in  books,  and  very  for- 
tunate indeed  are  the  California  boys  and  girls  who  can  go 
to  the  mountains  themselves,  and  learn  to  know  the  trees 
at  first  hand. 


109 


CALIFORNIA   PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


CHAPTER    IX. 


SOflE  SPRING   FLOWERS. 

Our  California  poppy  is  known  and  admired  the  world 
over;  but  under  cultivation  it  grows  pale,  and  it  is  only 
here,  in  its  native  home,  that  it  can  be  seen  in  all  its 
splendor.  We  have  turned  thousands  of  acres  of  poppies 
into  grain  fields,  orchards  or  city  lots,  but  we  still  have  left 
in  our  foothills  and  upland  valleys,  glowing  poppy  fields 
that  are  a  marvel  to  strangers  and  a  never-ending  delight 
to  ourselves.  The  Spanish  people  named  this  flower  "cup 
of  gold;"  but  the  botanists  called  it  Eschscholtzia. 

And  why  is  our  poppy  so  successful  ?  We  cannot  hope 
to  learn  all  of  its  secrets,  but  some  of  its  ways  are  easy  to 
understand.  It  has  an  underground  part  that  will  last  for 
years;  besides,  it  will  come  up  quickly  from  the  seed.  The 
leaves  are  just  the  sort  to  make  the  most  of  a  .short  rainy 
season,  and  the  flowers  take  the  best  of  care  of  their  golden 
pollen;  they  open  late  and  close  early  on  fair  days,  and  not 
at  all  in  rough  weather.  Look  into  an  open  flower,  and  see 
how  the  petals  hoard  the  pollen  as  it  falls  from  the  anthers. 
It  offers  no  honey  to  guests,  but  the  pollen  is  free  to  all  who 
call  on  sunny  days  between  10  and  3  o'clock.  The  poppy 
takes  lodgers,  too,  and  several  kinds  of  insects  choose 
to  sleep  in  this  golden  palace.  So  the  poppy  receives  a  fair 
share  of  insect  attention,  but  not  so  much  from  bees  as 
from  flies  and  beetles.  Some  of  the  beetles  are  boorish 

110 


Fig.    41.       POPPY    AND   CREAM-CUP—  Escbubolt  fia    California    and    Platystcmon 

California*. 


OF   THK 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

enough  to  eat  the  petals  of  the  flowers  as  well  as  the  pollen. 
But  the  guests  must  carry  much  pollen  for  the  poppies.  It 
is  generally  believed  that,  although  their  own  pollen  may 
fall  on  their  stigmas,  they  do  not  mature  seed  unless  pollen 
is  brought  from  other  flowers. 

The  cream-cups  are  cousins  of  the  poppies,  and  have 
the  same  habit  of  dropping  their  cap  of  sepals  as  the  petals 
unfold.  This  habit  will  help  us  to  recognize  other  members 
of  the  poppy  family,  including  the  cultivated  poppies.  You 
may  find  the  tree  poppy  with  large,  pale  yellow  flowers,  or 
a  pretty,  little,  bright  red  poppy  whose  petals  fall  off  at  a 
touch,  or  in  the  shady  nooks  of  the  canons,  a  very  delicate, 
little,  star-like,  white  poppy.  In  sandy  washes,  later  in  the 
season,  the  prickly  poppy  will  send  out  great  white  flowers 
with  crumpled  petals  and  a  great  many  yellow  stamens.  In 
some  canons  in  Southern  California,  there  is  found,  in  May, 
a  great,  white  poppy  five  or  six  inches  in  diameter,  the 
plant  being  sometimes  seven  feet  high.  This  giant  poppy 
is  called  Coulter's  poppy,  or  the  Matilija  poppy;  it  is  being 
introduced  into  our  gardens. 

And  the  mustard!  No  amount  of  cultivation  seems 
likely  to  drive  out  this  common  weed.  In  Southern  Cali- 
fornia it  forms  thickets  so  high  that  men  on  horseback  can 
be  quite  hidden  in  it.  It  is  true  here,  as  in  Palestine,  that 
it  grows  with  marvelous  rapidity  from  the  least  of  seeds, 
and  that  the  birds  lodge  in  the  branches.  It  matures  during 
the  rainy  season;  in  summer  time  there  remain  only  the 
dead,  gray  stalks,  from  which  the  birds  gather  seeds.  It  is 
impossible  to  explain  fully  why  the  mustard  can  grow  so 
rapidly  and  become  strong  enough  to  drive  out  other  plants 
that  we  take  great  care  to  preserve;  but  some  of  its  advan- 
tages are  easily  seen.  It  has  rough  leaves,  with  a  biting 
taste  that  most  animals  must  dislike,  and  it  has  a  great 
abundance  of  flowers,  in  clusters  that  last  a  long  time.  It 
provides  honey,  and  is  visited  by  bees  that  efiect  both  close 

112 


SOME  SPRING  FLOWERS 


and  cross  pollination.  Finally,  each 
plant  matures  thousands  of  seeds 
that  can  retain  their  vitality  for 
years.  These  are  scattered  far  and 
wide. 

You  have  noticed  that  mustard 
flowers  have  four  sepals,  four  petals, 
six  stamens  and  one  pistil.  There 
are  several  other  very  common 
little  flowers  that  have  their  parts 
in  exactly  the  same  numbers;  see 
how  many  you  can  find  before  we 
take  up  the  chapter  on  plant 
families. 

There  is  a  pretty  spring  flower, 
Fig.  42,  commonly  known  as  the 
primrose,  which  you  might  take  to 
belong  to  the  mustard  family.  It 
has  four  sepals  and  four  petals,  but 
eight  stamens,  and  its  pistil  is  a 
puzzle;  it  is  easy  to  find  the  little 
ball- like  stigma  and  the  slender 
style,  but  no  ovules  are  to  be  found 
within  the  flower;  they  seem  to  be 
in  the  stem,  instead.  Now  what 
holds  the  ovules  must  be  the  ovary, 
so  the  apparent  stem  is  really  the 
ovary,  and  it  is  called  an  inferior 
ovary,  because  it  is  below  the  rest 
of  the  flower.  This  primrose 
appears  rather  early  in  the  spring; 
at  first  there  are  a  few  pale  yellow 
flowers  close  to  the  ground,  in  a 
rosette  of  leaves;  later  on,  numerous 
branches  spread  out  flat  on  the 

8  113 


Fig.  42.     PRIMROSE— CEno- 
thera  bistorta. 


CALIFORNIA   PLANTS  IN   THEIR  HOMES 

ground,  bearing  many  flowers  and  queer,  twisted  pods. 
The  primrose  flower  has  usually  a  brown  spot  at  the  base 
of  each  petal;  it  produces  a  little  honey,  and  the  brown 
spots  help  the  insects  to  find  it,  but  the  flower  is  not  very 
hospitable,  and  can  pollinate  itself. 

Really,  this  flower  is  not  a  true  primrose;  it  belongs  to 
the  evening-primrose  family,  and  its  botanical  name  is 
CEnothera  bistorta.  There  is  an  (Bnothera  you  are  pretty 
sure  to  find  on  the  beaches;  its  full  name  is  (Enothera 
cheiranthifolia,  variety  suffruticosa,  but  notwithstanding  its 
ugly  name,  it  is  a  pretty  plant,  with  its  silken,  silvery  leaves 
and  pale  yellow  flowers.  It  is  a  sturdy  plant,  too;  in  spite 
of  all  the  intense  light  and  heat  from  the  sand,  it  keeps  its 
leaves  and  goes  on  flowering  all  the  year  round.  Can  you 
think  why  this  is  possible  ?  You  are  almost  sure  to  meet 
other  handsome  members  of  this  family  later  on,  and  you 
can  always  recognize  them  because  of  the  inferior  ovary 
and  the  parts  in  fours. 

Now,  if  possible,  make  a  collection  of  the  following 
flowers: — Gilias,  baby-blue-eyes,  Phacelias,  forget-me-nots, 
both  white  and  yellow,  nightshade,  and  morning-glories. 
The  motto  of  this  group  of  flowers  might  be,  "  In  union 
there  is  strength,"  for  all  of  them  have  their  petals  united 
into  tubes,  cups,  funnels,  wheels  or  something  of  the  sort. 
All  of  them,  too,  have  the  stamens  growing  on  the  corolla. 
Notice  the  number  of  parts  ;  five  always,  until  you  come  to 
the  pistil.  Now,  many  of  these  plants  are  annuals,  that  is, 
they  live  but  part  of  a  year  ;  so  it  is  very  necessary  that 
they  make  good  seed,  and  all  of  them  invite  insects  to  carry 
pollen. 

The  Gilias  have  always  one  ovary,  which  is  three- 
celled,  and  one  style,  but  three  stigmas.  There  are  more 
than  seventy  kinds  of  Gilias  in  California.  The  slender 
one  in  the  picture,  No.  2,  Fig.  43,  is  Gilia  multicaulis,  which 
means  a  Gilia  with  many  stems.  Its  flowers  are  blue, 

114 


Fig.  43.     GUPTAS. 

1.     Ground  pink,  G.  diantboides.      2.     G.  multicaulis. 
3.    Mountain  pink,  G.  Calif ornica. 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  7 HEIR  HOMES 

sometimes  very  pale  blue,  or  nearly  white  ;  they  are  rather 
small,  and  grow  in  small  clusters,  but  they  are  very  fragrant 
and  furnish  a  goodly  supply  of  honey.  No.  i  in  the  picture 
is  Gilia  dianthoides.  It  is  the  well-known  ground-pink  of 
Southern  California,  and  it  sometimes  actually  carpets  the 
ground.  It  is.  an  exquisite  little  flower,  with  its  lilac  or 
pink,  satin  petals,  slashed  and  fringed  at  the  edges,  and 
banded  with  crimson,  yellow,  and  brown  at  the  base.  But 
this  elegant  Gilia  is  not  generous  in  supplying  honey,  so, 
while  butterflies,  who  seem  to  prefer  finery  to  food,  usually 
choose  fine-lady  dianthoides,  the  less  showy  blue  Gilia  is 
the  bees'  favorite.  On  a  whole  hillside,  gay  with  wild 
flowers  of  many  sorts,  you  will  often  find  the  bees  selecting 
only  this  modest  blue  Gilia. 

Both  Gilias  keep  open  house  on  pleasant  days,  but  only 
from  about  10  in  the  morning  until  3  or  4  in  the  afternoon. 
They  open  their  anthers  early,  making  them  into  little 
pollen-covered  balls,  which  stand  guard  in  a  ring  about  the 
entrance  to  the  honey.  Usually  they  hold  their  stigmas 
above  the  anthers,  and  do  not  unfold  their  own  stigmas 
until  after  they  have  furnished  pollen  for  those  of  other 
flowers. 

The  stigmas  of  the  little  blue  flower  often  lie  against 
the  lower  edge,  and  you  can  distinctly  see  the  bee  strike 
them  as  he  thrusts  his  head  into  the  flower  ;  you  can  also 
see  that  his  head  is  dusty  with  the  blue  pollen  of  other 
flowers.  Gilia  dianthoides,  after  a  while,  curls  down  its 
stigmas  among  its  own  anthers,  and  flowers  of  both  Gilias 
are  likely  to  pollinate  themselves  as  they  close  at  night. 
Besides  this,  the  fallen  pollen  collects  all  down  the  corolla 
tube,  and  as  the  corolla  finally  falls  off",  some  pollen  is  sure 
to  be  brushed  against  the  stigmas ;  so  these  Gilias  can 
pollinate  themselves  if  insects  fail  them. 

The  other  Gilia  in  the  picture  is  Gilia  Calif ornica,  or 
the  mountain-pink.  The  plants  are  shrubby,  and  are  two 

116 


or  three  feet  high.  The  flowers 
are  very  handsome  and  showy, 
but  it  is  really  one  of  the  most 
unamiable  of  the  Gilias;  if  you  have 
ever  tried  to  pluck  it,  you  know 
how  savage  the  leaves  are ;  and  the 
great,  lovely,  pink  flowers  seem  to 
provide  no  honey  at  all ;  besides 
this,  they  keep  their  pollen  away 
down  in  the  narrow  corolla  tube, 
apparently  only  for  their  own  use, 
for  it  falls  directly  on  the  stigmas. 
I  have  never  seen  this  inhospitable 
flower  visited,  and  its  attractive 
corolla  seems  to  be  of  no  use  to 
the  plant. 

The  botanical  name  for  baby- 
blue-eyes  is  Nemophila.  There  are 
several  kinds  quite  common  in  the 
state.  In  Southern  California  the 
one  most  common  in  the  canons 
has  very  delicate  blue  flowers,  while 
the  kind  that  grows  in  open  places 
has  larger,  deep  blue  flowers.  But 
the  most  clever  Nemophila  is  the 
one  in  the  picture,  Fig.  44  ;  it  is 
common  in  very  shady  places  ;  it 
has  not  blue  flowers  at  all,  but 
large,  dull  violet  ones.  It  is  rarely 
gathered,  because  the  stems  are  so 
weak  that  they  break  in  the  hand- 
ling, and  the  whole  plant  is  very 
prickly.  A  bit  of  its  epidermis 
under  the  microscope  is  shown 
in  the  picture ;  the  prickles,  or 

117 


Fig.  44. 
CLIMBING 

Nemopbila  aurita. 


Fig.  45.    SOME  MEMBERS  OF   THE  BI^UE-EYES  FAMILY. 

1,    Ettisia  cbrysantbemfolia.  2.     fr-acelia  Wbittavia. 

3.     Wild  heliotrope,  Phacelia  anacetifolia. 


SOME  SPRING  FLOWERS 

more  truly  hooks,  serve  at  least  two  purposes ;  they 
defend  the  plant  against  enemies  and  help  it  in  climbing. 
This  Nemophila  has  very  little  woody  tissue,  but  by  hook- 
ing itself,  by  leaf,  stem,  or  calyx,  to  any  convenient  sup- 
port, it  gets  up  into  light  and  air,  and  is  able  to  display  its 
flowers  to  the  insect  world.  I  have  seen  Nemophilas  that, 
as  early  as  February,  had  climbed  to  the  top  of  a  high  fence, 
and  were  looking  over  for  something  else  to  grasp.  The  flowers 
know  well  how  to  secure  insect  help.  At  the  base  of  each 
flower  are  ten  tiny  saucers  that  hold  the  honey ;  these 
saucers  fit  together  in  pairs,  forming  five  little  hollow  balls; 
so  the  honey  is  protected  from  dust,  wind  and  rain,  and  is 
reserved  for  large  insects,  since  small  ones  could  not  open 
the  balls.  The  anthers  face  upward  as  they  shed  their 
pollen,  so  guests  are  sure  to  carry  some  away  ;  later  on, 
the  two  stigmas  are  held  up  where  they  are  sure  to  be  struck. 
The  Phacelias  belong  to  the  same  family  as  the  Nemo- 
philas, and  a  very  vigorous  branch  they  are  !  There  are 
many  kinds  of  Phacelias  ;  the  flowers  vary  much  in  size  and 
in  color  and  form,  but  they  always  grow  in  clusters  that 
last  a  long  time,  and  coil  at  the  ends  like  a  scorpion's  tail ; 
the  botanists  call  this  form  of  cluster  "  scorpioid."  Pha- 
celias are  usually  rough  or  sticky,  and  know  well  how  to 
defend  themselves.  No.  3,  Fig.  45,  is  Phacelia  tanaceti folia, 
a  common,  wayside  weed  in  some  places  in  California.  Its 
flowers,  like  those  of  the  Nemophila,  have  ten  scales  on  the 
corolla  tube,  but  the  scales  are  not  at  the  very  bottom,  and 
instead  of  being  saucers  to  hold  the  honey,  they  fit  closely 
together,  forming  a  floor,  or  false  bottom,  a  little  way  above 
the  real  base  of  the  flower.  The  honey  is  at  the  very  base, 
and  the  plates  above  fit  so  closely  that  only  a  strong  slender 
tongue  can  get  it.  So  this  Phacelia  keeps  its  honey  for  the 
larger  and  more  useful  guests ;  the  bees  know  this  very 
well,  and  come  in_throngs,  carrying  pollen  from  younger 
flowers  and  rubbing  it  on  the  stigmas  of  older  ones. 

119 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


Fig.  46.    WHITE  FORGET-ME-NOT— Plagiobotbrys  notbofulvus 

120 


SOME  SPRING  FLOWERS 

No.  2,  Fig.  45,  is  Phacelia  Whitlavia,  with  great,  bell- 
shaped  flowers  of  royal  purple.  Its  flowers  are  really  mag- 
nificent, but  they  are  not  so  clever  as  those  of  the  other 
Phacelia.  You  can  read  their  story  for  yourselves  if  you 
watch  the  flowers  out  of  doors  on  a  still,  sunny  day.  No.  i 
is  a  small  specimen  of  another  of  the  baby-blue-eyes  family 
that  is  very  common  in  shady  places.  It  has  a  pretty  first 
name,  Ellisia ;  the  rest  of  the  name  is  chrysanthemifolia^ 
which  means  only  chrysanthemum-like  leaves.  Really,  they 
are  much  prettier  than  chrysanthemum  leaves  ;  they  are 
often  mistaken  for  ferns  early  in  the  season  before  the  dainty 
little  white  flowers  appear.  The  flowers  provide  a  little 
honey,  but  as  they  are  very  small,  and  grow  in  shaded 
places,  the  bees  are  not  sure  to  seek  them,  so  they  con- 
tentedly pollinate  themselves  if  guests  fail  to  come. 

The  forget-me-not,  or  heliotrope  family,  like  the  Pha- 
celias,  has  always  scorpioid  flower  clusters.  Our  forget- 
me-nots  have  small  flowers,  but  perhaps  you  can  make  out 
that  they  have  one  style,  one  stigma,  and  an  ovary  that 
breaks  up  into  four  parts.  There  are  many  kinds  of  the 
white  forget-me-nots.  The  one  in  the  picture  blooms  early; 
in  Southern  California,  in  February  and  March,  it  actually 
whitens  grassy  slopes  and  meadows,  and  gives  out  a 
delicious  fragrance;  and  the  botanists  have  called  this 
dainty  blossom  Plagiobothrys  nothofulvus  !  The  flowers  are 
too  small  to  provide  much  honey,  and  they  seem  able  to 
pollinate  themselves,  but  they  are  sometimes  visited  by 
small  bees,  flies  and  butterflies.  They  remain  open  at  night, 
and,  because  of  their  whiteness  and  fragrance,  must  attract 
night  guests  also.  The  yellow  forget-me-nots  are  such 
coarse  weeds  that  we  hardly  like  to  call  them  forget-me- 
nots  ;  in  some  places  the  children  call  them  woolly 
breeches.  They  are  sturdy  successful  plants.  They  grow 
rapidly ,  are  well  armed  against  all  foes,  and  are  on  the  best  of 


121 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

terms  with  the  bees.     They  have,  too,  excellent  devices  for 
scattering  their  seeds,  as  you  can  see  for  yourselves. 

The  flowers  of  the  nightshade  and  morning-glory  place 
them  in  this  group  of  plants.  Unlike  most  of  the  plants  we 
have  been  considering,  these  are  usually  perennials.  Some 
species  are  world-wide  weeds.  As  we  noticed  in  the 


Fig.  47.    NIGHTSHADE— Solatium  Douglasii. 

122 


SOMEl  SPRING  FL  O  WERs 

autumn,  the  nightshade  can  flower  all  the  year  round  in  our 
climate  ;  and  one  European  morning-glory  seems  able  to 
drive  out  all  other  vegetation  in  some  California  fields. 
Watch  the  climbing  of  our  native  morning-glories  and  com- 
pare with  the  chilicothe,  the  poison  oak  and  the  Nemophila 
aurita. 

The  most  attractive  nightshade  of  Southern  California 
is  found  in  the  foot-hills;  it  has  large  and  very  fragrant  blue 
flowers.  Unlike  the  flowers  we  have  been  studying  in  this 
group,  the  nightshade  provides  no  honey,  so  the  corolla 
needs  no  tubular  part.  Its  five,  large,  yellow  anthers  lie 
close  together,  forming  a  cone  that  reminds  us  of  the  shoot- 
ing star  anthers.  Disturb  this  cone  slightly,  and  a  little 
cloud  of  pollen  rises.  It  is  shed  through  minute  chinks  at 
the  ends  of  the  anthers;  indeed,  we  might  call  these  pepper- 
box anthers.  The  bees  seem  to  know  all  about  this,  and 
you  will  sometimes  find  numbers  of  them  collecting  pollen 
from  the  anthers,  always  striking  the  stigmas  first.  The 
more  common  nightshade,  pictured  in  Fig.  47,  has  smaller, 
white  or  bluish- white  flowers  ;  it  is  not  so  attractive  to  bees 
as  the  fragrant,  blue-flowered  one.  The  nightshades  have 
the  same  device  for  self  pollination  that  we  found  in  the 
shooting  star ;  the  style  of  the  older  flowers  turns  upward, 
holding  the  stigma  where  pollen  will  fall  upon  it.  The 
morning-glory  keeps  its  honey  curiously  hidden  where  the 
bees  seldom  try  to  get  it,  but  they  strike  the  stigmas  when 
they  come  for  pollen.  The  morning-glory,  too,  seems  able  to 
pollinate  itself. 

But  surely  the  queen  among  all  our  California  spring 
flowers,  is  the  Mariposa  lily,  or  butterfly  tulip.  As  seen  in 
the  picture,  the  Mariposas  are  of  two  distinct  forms.  There 
are  dainty  nodding  lilies,  sometimes  called  globe  tulips,  the 
white  one  of  the  picture,  the  satin-bell  or  fairy's  lantern, 
and  a  yellow  one  called  golden  lily-bell,  are  the  most  com- 
mon. Their  petals  open  very  slightly,  and  are  covered  with 

123 


Fig.  48.    MARIPOSAS. 
/.  Calochorttu  albus.         2.  Calocbortus  Catalince. 


SOME  SPRING  FLOWERS 

long  hairs  within  ;  so  that  the  children  call  the  flowers 
cat's  ears.  They  serve  some  honey,  and  entertain  some 
guests,  but  they  are  able  to  pollinate  themselves.  There 
are  also  the  larger,  upright,  cup-shaped  Mariposas  that  are 
much  more  common,  and  few  flowers  can  rival  these  stately 
chalices  in  beauty  of  form  or  color.  In  the  valleys  the 
lilies  are  usually  lilac,  cream  or  pale  rose,  with  crimson 
spots,  or  yellow  with  golden  brown  or  purple  markings  ;  a 
desert  species  is  flame  color  with  royal  purple  honey  guides; 
in  the  mountains  there  are  azure,  violet,  purple  and  inter- 
mediate shades  with  spots  and  rings  of  other  tints.  And 
of  what  use  is  all  this  beauty  to  the  plant  itself  ?  Really, 
the  Mariposa  does  not  calculate  closely  in  her  hospitality, 
as  we  shall  see.  Honey  is  served  in  the  tiny  bowls  at  the 
base  of  each  petal,  and  the  protecting  fringes  and  borders, 
in  elegantly  contrasting  colors,  serve  also  as  honey  guides. 
This  honey  is  accessible  to  many  guests;  indeed,  there  are 
spiders  that  find  it  worth  while  to  assume  the  exact  color 
of  the  flowers,  and  to  lie  in  wait  for  the  Mariposa's  insect 
guests.  The  Mariposa  serves  pollen,  too,  opening  anthers 
so  slowly  that  the  supply  lasts  for  several  days.  She  affords 
shelter  also  ;  there  is  a  fuzzy,  homeless  bachelor  bee  that 
chooses  to  spend  his  nights  in  this  stately  palace ;  you  may 
find  him  early  in  the  afternoon,  already  snuggled  down  for 
the  night,  standing  on  his  head,  his  antennae  tucked  neatly 
back.  Now  it  is  not  until  the  petals  begin  to  fade  that  the 
Mariposa's  own  stigmas  are  exposed,  and  even  then  an 
entering  guest  is  not  sure  to  strike  them  ;  so,  many  of  the 
visits  paid  to  flowers  must  be  of  no  use  to  them.  I,et  us 
hope  that  the  bachelor  bee  brings  pollen,  or  that  in  nestling 
down  he  scatters  some  of  the  stored  pollen  on  the  stigmas. 
The  Mariposa  has  bulbs  as  well  as  seeds,  and  however 
greedily  we  may  pluck  the  flowers,  we  usually  leave  the 
bulbs  ;  so  possibly  our  Mariposas  may  be  spared  to  us  for 
many  years  to  come. 

125 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


CHAPTER  X. 


PLANTS  WITH  MECHANICAL  GENIUS. 

In  olden  times  if  a  man's  father  were  a  baker,  he  him- 
self would  be  a  baker,  and  so  would  his  son  and  his  son's 
son.  Every  man  followed  the  trade  practiced  for  genera- 
tions by  other  members  of  his  family,  and  so  all  became 
skilled  workmen.  This  is  true  in  some  countries  to-day. 
It  is  also  true  that  there  are  some  families  of  musicians  or 
even  of  literary  men. 

In  the  plant  world,  we  have  one  family  at  least,  the  pea 
family,  with  a  talent  in  one  direction;  nearly  every  member 
of  this  family  has  some  ingenious  mechanical  device.  It  is  a 
large  family  and  furnishes  us  many  beautiful  and  useful 
plants.  It  includes  the  lupines,  which  make  beautiful  so 
many  spots  in  California,  from  the  sea  beaches  to  the  very 
mountain  tops.  The  lupines  adapt  themselves  to  all  condi- 
tions. There  are  annuals  that  grow  rapidly,  and  flower 
and  fruit  during  the  few  months  of  the  rainy  season  ;  and 
there  are  perennials  that,  even  in  Southern  California,  can 
keep  on  blooming  all  the  year.  On  sea  beaches,  the  lupines 
send  out  roots  sometimes  thirty  feet  long,  and  clothe  them- 
selves in  woolly  or  thick,  silken  coats;  along  streams,  the 
smooth,  bright  green  leaves  of  one  lupine  are  six  or  eight 
inches  across,  and  the  flower  clusters  reach  up  higher  than 
a  man's  head  ;  while  up  in  the  mountains  there  are  little 
perennial  lupines  but  a  few  inches  high,  with  leaves  soft 
and  silky  as  seal  skin,  and  sturdy  little  stems  and  roots  that 

126 


LUPINE,  ALFALFA  AND  BUR-CLOVER 


Fig.  49.     LUPINE — Lupinus  sparsiflorus 

127 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

store  food.  Some  lupines  come  up  year  after  year,  like 
weeds,  in  cultivated  land ;  and  several  kinds  have  leaves 
that  know  how  to  fold  at  night,  or  during  dry  winds. 

The  flowers  of  all  lupines  grow  in  clusters  that  last  for 
weeks,  sometimes  for  months,  and  they  all  have  the  same 
clever  device  for  pollination.  Take  the  cluster  of  any  large- 
flowered  lupine  you  can  find,  and  examine  the  flowers  care- 
fully. The  calyx  seems  to  consist  of  two  parts;  really,  there 
are  five  sepals  united  in  two  groups.  There  is  one  very 
large  petal  that  stands  upright  and  is  called  the  banner;  the 
other  four  petals  form  a-  platform  for  guests,  and  enclose 
the  stamens  and  pistil;  the  two  outside  petals,  which  are 
called  wings,  usually  cohere  slightly  at  the  tip;  besides 
this,  they  are  fitted  very  neatly  into  the  inner  petals  so  that 
they  act  with  them;  see  for  yourselves  just  how.  If  you 
have  one  of  the  younger  flowers,  you  will  find  the  two  inner 
petals  so  much  united  that  you  are  likely  to  mistake  them 
for  one,  but  notice  that  at  the  base  they  are  quite  distinct, 
and  that  there  is  also  a  tiny  opening  at  the  very  tip;  these 
partially  united  petals  are  supposed  to  resemble  the  bottom 
of  a  boat  and  are  called  the  keel.  Snugly  tucked  away  in 
the  keel  are  the  ten  stamens,  and  within  their  united  fila- 
ments is  the  pistil,  the  style  and  stigma  projecting  slightly 
beyond.  To  understand  all  about  the  stamens  you  need  to 
begin  with  the  bud;  you  will  find  that  the  five  higher, 
longer  anthers  shed  their  pollen  in  the  keel  before  the  ban- 
ner rises,  while  the  other  five,  by  means  of  their  thickened 
filaments,  hold  the  shed  pollen  firmly  in  place  in  the 
tip  of  the  keel. 

Now,  when  a  bee  comes  to  call  on  a  lupine,  he  is  sure 
to  alight  on  the  lower  petals  ;  imitate  with  your  pencil  his 
weight  on  this  part  of  the  flower,  and  see  what  happens  ; 
there  is  always  a  little  jet  of  pollen  forced  out.  You  can 
think  how  the  lupine  does  this.  The  pollen  has  been 
packed  away  in  the  tip  of  the  keel  and  held  there  by  the 

128 


LUPINE;  ALFALFA  AND  BUR-CLOVER 

filaments ;  as  the  weight  of  the  bee  presses  down  on  the 
keel,  the  stiff  stamens  push  up  the  pollen  and  force  it 
through  the  opening  at  the  tip.  So  the  lupine  lets  its 
guests  pump  out  pollen.  The  bees  seem  to  appreciate  the 
pollen  very  much,  for,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  lupines 
provide  no  honey,  the  larger  and  more  fragrant  kinds  are 
much  visited  by  bees.  It  is  most  entertaining  to  watch 
them  stow  away  the  pollen  in  their  baskets  as  they  pump 
it  out.  Hive  bees  can  visit  about  twelve  flowers  per  minute, 
but  a  great  bumble-bee  can  pump  out  and  pack  away  the 
pollen  of  thirty-five  flowers  in  the  same  time.  Since  bees 
are  so  swift  and  industrious,  do  you  wonder  that  many 
flowers  favor  them  for  guests  ?  Perhaps  this  is  why  most 
of  our  lupines  have  attained  the  bees'  favorite  color,  blue. 
Of  course  you  can  see  that  at  every  visit  the  bee  first  strikes 
the%  stigma,  which  is  mature  in  the  older  flowers;  that  is,  he 
cross  pollinates  the  flowers. 

The  lupines  have  also  a  mechanical  device  for  scattering 
seed,  a  device  that  is  used  by  other  members  of  the  pea 
family.  The  fruit,  3^ou  see,  is  a  kind  of  a  pod  ;  it  is  called 
a  legume,  and  since  all  members  of  this  family  have  the 
fruit,  a  legume,  the  L,atin"name  of  the  family  is  I,egumi- 
nosse.  The  legume  of  the  lupine  has  along  its  edges  an 
elastic  tissue  that  causes  the  two  parts,  when  separated,  to 
coil  and  twist  back  with  considerable  force,  so  scattering 
the  seeds. 

The  alfalfa  is  a  member  of  the  family  Leguminosae.  You 
will  recognise  the  family  likeness  at  once  when  you  look 
at  the  flowers,  for  they  have  banner,  wings  and  keel,  as 
the  lupines  have.  The  alfalfa  is  a  European  plant,  intro- 
duced here  by  way  of  Mexico  and  Chili.  It  is  a  great 
boon  to  our  western  country,  where  the  upper  layers  of 
soil  become  so  dry  during  the  rainless  months,  for  the 
alfalfa  roots  will  grow  down  a  considerable  distance  to  find 
a  moist  subsoil;  we  sometimes  find  it  growing  in  waste 
9  129 


Fig.  50.     ALFALFA  AND  BUR- CLOVER— Medicago  saliva  and  Medicago  denticulata. 

1.  Exploded  flower  of  alfalfa.    2.  Unexploded  flower  with  banner  removed,  top 

view.    3.  Wing.    4.  Keel. 


LUPINE,  ALFALFA  AND  BUR-CLOVER 

places  year  after  year  without  cultivation.  The  flowers 
of  the  alfalfa,  too,  have  their  special  mechanical  trick. 
Examine  a  cluster  of  flowers  carefully,  looking  each  flower 
squarely  in  the  face.  Perhaps  you  will  find  that  some 
flowers,  like  the  enlarged  one  in  the  picture,  have  the 
column  of  stamens  and  pistil  close  against  the  banner, 
while  in  other  flowers  nothing  of  the  sort  is  there.  Take 
one  of  these  latter  flowers,  and  imagine  where  an  insect 
seeking  honey  would  thrust  its  tongue;  imitate  this 
action  by  inserting  a  needle,  and  instantly,  the  stamens 
and  pistil  fly  up  like  a  "jack-in-the-box."  Now  let  us  look 
for  this  machinery.  Remove  the  calyx  and  banner,  and 
push  back  the  column  of  stamens  and  pistil  into  the  keel. 
You  will  see  that  there  are  two  little  projections,  one 
frcTm  each  wing,  that  are  fitted  over  this  column,  also 
that  the  wings  are  firmly  fastened  to  the  keel  by  means 
of  other  projections  that  fit  into  pockets.  So  the  column 
was  at  first  held  down  in  the  keel  by  means  of  these  pro- 
jections from  the  wings.  The  honey  is  at  the  very  base  of 
the  stamens,  and  is  reached  only  through  two  little  open- 
ings on  the  upper  side.  When  an  insect  alights  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  flower,  and  thrusts  his  tongue  directly  in  for 
honey,  as  you  did  the  needle,  the  tongue  separates  the  pro- 
jections, and  the  stamens  and  pistil  fly  up  with  much 
force  and  strike  the  tongue.  The  pistil  is  likely  to  strike 
first,  and  the  whole  tongue  becomes  newly  dusted  with 
pollen. 

Of  course  this  is  a  very  rude  way  for  the  flower  to 
treat  its  guest.  The  blow  must  be  disagreeable,  and  the 
bees  and  butterflies  seem  to  dislike  it,  for  some  of  them 
have  learned  to  get  honey  by  inserting  the  tongue  at  the 
base  and  side  of  the  flower ;  in  this  way  they  obtain  honey 
without  touching  the  stigma  or  pollen,  and  the  flower,  on 
account  of  its  rude  behavior,  gets  no  help  from  the  guest. 
Indeed,  while  the'alfalfa  has  a  very  ingenious  mechanism, 

131 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

it  has  really  not  so  good  a  method  as  the  lupine,  for  only 
the  first  guest  strikes  the  alfalfa  stigmas  and  pollen,  while 
the  lupine  furnishes  pollen  and  has  stigmas  struck  over  and 
over  again  ;  the  pollen  of  the  lupines  is  always  protected, 
while  the  alfalfa  anthers  are  quite  exposed  after  the 
explosion  of  the  flowers.  The  only  advantage  of  the 
alfalfa  is  that  butterflies,  as  well  as  bees,  can  pollinate  the 
flowers. 

Now  the  most  wonderful  part  of  the  story  is,  that  the 
wee  flowers  of  the  bur-clover  have  exactly  the  same  ma- 
chinery as  the  alfalfa.  Their  pistil  and  stamens,  too,  jump 
up  like  a  "jack-in-the-box"  and  strike  the  guest's  tongue; 
but  the  column  of  stamens  and  pistil  in  the  bur-clover  is  so 
short  that  it  cannot  trouble  the  insect  much,  and  after  it 
has  sprung  up  against  the  banner,  it  is  still  protected  by 
the  wings.  This  makes  it  difficult  for  you  to  see  the 
flower  explode,  but  if  you  have  patience  and  good  eyes, 
you  can  'find  the  projections  on  the  tiny  wings,  and  the 
pockets  in  the  keel.  The  bur-clover  flowers,  in  spite  of 
being  so  tiny,  furnish  a  good  amount  of  honey,  and  the 
bees  seem  to  find  it  more  readily  than  we  can. 

Now  take  a  stem  of  bur-clover,  and  note  the  changes 
from  the  flower  to  the  bur.  Would  you  have  thought 
that  the  bur  is  really  the  same  sort  of  fruit  as  the  lupine 
pod  ?  By  looking  closely  you  will  see  that  the  bur  is  at 
first  a  tiny  pod,  and  that  it  grows  two  rows  of  teeth  on 
one  edge,  takes  a  little  turn,  then  twists  again  and  again, 
until  it  is  the  hooked  coil,  or  bur,  that  fastens  itself  so 
readily  to  our  clothes.  The  alfalfa,  too,  has  a  coiled  pod, 
but  it  is  not  provided  with  teeth. 

The  true  clovers  are  another  branch  of  this  ingenious 
family, 'Leguminosse.  We  have  some  very  pretty  clovers 
in  California,  but  they  are  not  such  an  important  part  of 
the  vegetation  as  they  are  in  countries  with  more  moisture, 
in  our  Eastern  States  or  England,  for  instance.  A  head  of 

132 


LUPINE,  ALFALFA  AND  BUR-CLOVER 

clover  is,  of  course,  a  flower  cluster,  and  you  can  easily 
see  that,  like  the  lupine  and  alfalfa,  each  little  flower  has 
banner,  wings  and  keel;  that  is,  they  are  what  are  called 
"butterfly"  flowers.  If  you  have  patience,  you  can  find 
that  the  clovers,  too,  have  mechanical  contrivances  for 
keeping  wings  and  keel  united,  and  that  they  serve  honey. 
Some  clovers  trust  absolutely  to  their  insect  guests,  and 
cannot  pollinate  themselves  at  all.  This  is  true  of  a  beau- 
tiful, large-flowered  clover  that  is  much  used  as  a  pasture 
plant  in  many  countries;  its  flowers  are  so  long  that  they 
must  have  bumble-bees  to  carry  pollen  for  them,  and  if  we 
try  to  grow  the  clover  where  there  are  not  enough  big 
bumble-bees,  it  will  not  produce  good  seed.  So  they 
jokingly  say  that  England  owes  her  beautiful  clover  fields 
to*  the  old  maids  that  keep  the  cats  that  kill  the  mice  that 
eat  the  bumble-bees  that  pollinate  the  clover. 

Our  wild  peas  have  such  large  flowers  that  you  can 
very  easily  find  their  honey  and  the  beautiful  devices  by 
which  the  wings  and  keel  are  held  together.  They  have, 
also,  little  brushes  on  their  styles  for  sweeping  out  pollen, 
a  little  for  each  guest  to  carry  away.  Be  sure  to  watch  how 
the  wild  peas  climb.  There  are  several  kinds  of  wild  peas 
that  you  are  likely  to  find,  and  also  many  other  common 
kinds  of  L,eguminos3e.  There  are  the  "rattle-pods,"  so 
common  in  sandy  soil;  this  plant  is  called  loco  weed  by  the 
stockmen,  and  is  believed  to  loco  horses,  that  is,  to  make 
them  crazy.  Then  there  is  the  Hosackia,  or  L,otus,  group 
of  small  lyeguminous  plants.  One  kind  is  pictured  in  Fig. 
n,  Chapter  III,  and  you  are  Hkely  to  find  others.  In  your 
fields  and  gardens,  too,  you  will  find  many  members  of  this 
family,  some  useful  like  the  peas,  beans  and  peanuts,  and 
some  with  very  showy  flowers;  see  how  many  you  can  rec- 
ognize, and  try  to  discover  the  devices  of  their  flowers  and 
fruit. 

There    are  other    families   with    mechanical  devices, 

133 


Fig.  51.     FIIyAREE— Er odium  cicutarium. 


LUPINE,  ALFALFA  AND  BUR-CLOVER 

especially  for  scattering  seed.  The  Geranium  family,  which 
includes  the  filaree  as  well  as  the  cultivated  geraniums,  is 
an  example.  The  filaree,  like  the  bur-clover,  is  believed 
to  have  been  brought  to  California  from  Europe,  perhaps 
with  the  grain  seed  imported  by  the  fathers  in  the  good  old 
mission  days.  The  filaree  and  bur-clover  take  kindly  to 
our  climate,  the  rainy  season  giving  them  all  the  time  they 
need  to  mature  their  numerous  seeds;  and  how  they  have 
spread  themselves  over  this  great  state  of  ours !  from  the 
lovely  fertile  valleys  overlooking  the  sea,  where  the  fathers 
loved  to  plant  their  missions,  up  to  almost  inaccessible 
mountain  meadows  two  hundred  miles  from  the  coast, 
and  thousands  -  of  feet  above  it;  for  with  the  filaree  and 
bur-clover  came  the  sheep  to  carry  the  seeds  in  their  wool 
wherever  sheep  can  go. 

You  all  know  the  filaree  fruits;  perhaps  you  call  them 
clocks;  let  us  trace  them  back  to  the  flowers.  Watch  the 
little  bluish  flowers  on  your  way  to  school  in  the  morning; 
notice  how  they  turn  to  the  sun,  and  find  out  where  they 
keep  their  honey.  The  filaree,  like  the  bur-clover,  prac- 
tices such  bountiful  hospitality  as  it  must  have  seen  in  the 
old  California  days.  Every  flower  provides  five  generous 
drops  of  honey,  which  glisten  in  the  sun  and  are  free  to  all 
who  come.  The  pollen  and  stigmas  are  kept  where  the 
larger  guests  will  strike  them;  but  the  smaller  ones  will 
not  pay  for  their  entertainment,  and  the  filaree  seems  quite 
able  to  pollinate  itself;  at  any  rate,  it  always  ripens  an 
abundance  of  good  seed.  After  the  petals  fall,  the  five 
little  pistils  in  the  centre  of  the  flower,  also  the  part  of  the 
flower  that  holds  them,  the  receptacle,  begin  to  grow,  and 
they  grow,  and  grow,  until  they  are  about  two  inches  long. 
Now  if  you  will  sit  down  in  the  midst  of  the  filaree  on  a 
warm  April  or  May  morning,  you  can  see  the  little  brown 
"clocks"  shooting  off  from  the  parent  plant  in  every  direc- 
tion; you  can  even  hear  the  soft  patter  as  they  fall.  Pick 

135 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

a  filaree  fruit  that  has  turned  brown  and  is  just  ready  to 
explode,  and  give  it  a  little  twist.  The  five  pistils  spring 
away  from  the  receptacle  like  bits  of  bent  whalebone,  and 
for  much  the  same  reason.  As  they  fly  off,  they  may  be 
caught  and  carried  with  the  wind  because  of  the  long  silky 
hairs  of  the  styles. 

Now  look  carefully  at  the  seed  part,  or  rather  at  the 
brown  ovary  wall  that  contains  the  seed;  it  is  tipped  with 
a  little  hook  and  is  covered  with  bristles  that  slope  outward 
and  upward.  Put  one  in  your  sleeve  and  see  how  easily  it 
slips  in,  and  how  troublesome  it  is  to  get  out.  So  these 
bristles  must  be  of  great  use  to  the  seeds  in  keeping  them 
in  the  sheep's  wool  until  they  are  carried  a  long  distance. 
The  silky  hairs,  then,  are  of  use  when  the  wind  is  the  car- 
rier; the  bristles,  when  the  sheep  serve  the  plant;  but  the 
most  interesting  feature  is  the  twisting  motion  that  gives 
the  fruits  their  name  of  ''clocks."  The  clock  you  have 
put  in  your  sleeve  has  probably  turned  round  several  times 
while  you  were  reading  this.  I^et  it  finish  twisting,  then 
put  it  in  water  and  watch  it;  before  long  it  will  be  per- 
fectly straight;  as  it  dries,  it  twists  again,  and  so  on. 
Think  of  the  use  of  the  coiling  and  uncoiling  to  the  little 
fruits  that  lie  in  the  dust  on  the  ground  through  all  the  dry 
season.  With  every  dew  or  fog  they  uncoil;  as  the  sun 
comes  out,  they  twist  again.  Do  you  not  see  that  this  helps 
to  bury  them  in  the  dust  ?  If  there  is  moisture  enough  to 
soften  the  soil,  it  makes  the  clocks  uncoil  at  the  same  time, 
and  they  will  actually  screw  themselves  into  the  earth;  so 
by  the  time  the  autumn  rains  come,  our  filaree  seeds  have 
pretty  well  planted  themselves;  we  have  seen  how  promptly 
they  spring  up  after  the  first  rain. 

The  geraniums  of  our  gardens  have  the  same  mechan- 
ical devices  for  seed  distribution.  The  pollination  of  their 
flowers,  too,  is  very  interesting,  and  you  can  find  out  their 
story  for  yourselves.  Notice  whether  the  flowers  are  reg- 

136 


LUPINE,  ALFALFA  AND  BUR-CLOVER 

ular;  find  the  honey;  think  whether  all  the  guests  could 
get  it;  where  the  guest  would  alight;  whether  he  would 
strike  the  pollen  or  stigmas  in  the  younger  flowers;  in 
older  ones.  Then  watch  for  the  guests.  What  sort  of 
guest  do  you  think  might  choose  the  brilliant  scarlet  flow- 
ers ?  Which  colors  would  be  the  best  for  the  night  moths  ? 
There  is  still  another  family  that  uses  either  twisting 
or  bending  and  unbending  movements  to  scatter  seed, — the 
grass  family.  Several  of  our  California  grasses  have  this 
habit;  see  if  you  can  find  them. 


137 


CALIFORNIA   PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


CHAPTER  XI. 


PLANTS  OF  HIGH  RANK. 

Men  attain  high  rank  because  of  marked  ability ; 
plants,  too,  are  considered  of  high  rank  when  they  are 
specially  well  fitted  to  accomplish  their  ends.  Of  course 
the  flowers  of  higher  rank  unite  their  petals  to  secure  the 
more  desirable  guests,  and  many  of  them  make  their  corol- 
las two-lipped,  using  the  two  upper  petals  for  one  lip,  the 
three  lower  for  the  other  ;  the  lower  lip  usually  serves  as  a 
platform  for  the  guest,  as  we  shall  see  later  on.  In  this 
chapter  we  shall  study  some  common  flowers  belonging  to 
two  two-lipped,  or  bilabiate  families. 

The  Mimulus,  or  monkey-flower,  Fig.  52,  belongs  to 
one  of  these  families.  The  kind  of  Mimulus  in  the  picture 
grows  on  a  shrub  several  feet  high.  In  many  parts  of 
California  there  are  hillsides  entirely  covered  with  these 
shrubs,  and  it  is  worth  going  far  to  see  them  when  they  are 
in  full  flower  in  late  spring  time.  They  bloom  most  pro- 
fusely, and  the  flowers  are  large  and  beautifully  colored ; 
sometimes  pale  yellow  or  salmon,  sometimes  buffer  orange, 
sometimes  quite  red.  There  is  another  verj'  common 
Mimulus,  which  grows  along  streams  or  irrigating  ditches; 
it  has  large  yellow  flowers  with  spotted,  nearly  closed 
throats,  the  shape  of  the  flowers  suggesting  the  common 
name,  snapdragons. 

Now  both  kinds  of  Mimulus  have  exclusive  flowers. 
The  shrubby  Mimulus  has  corolla  tubes  two  or  three  inches 

138 


BILABIATE  FLOWERS 


Fig.  52.     MONKEY-FLOWER— Mimulus  glutinosus. 

long,  and  so  invites  only  humming  birds  and  the  largest 
moths.  The  other  Mimulus  has  a  shorter  corolla,  but  by 
having  the  throat  nearly  closed  and  covered  with  dense 
hairs,  it  keeps  out  many  small  insects.  One  would  expect 
such  exclusive  flowers  to  proffer  abundant  hospitality  to 
their  chosen  guests,  but  they  are  much  more  showy  than 
generous  ;  they  serve  little  honey,  and  bees  and  humming 
birds  are  quick  to  learn  this.  In  the  day  time  one  rarely 

139 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

sees  the  paler  flowers  of  the  shrubby  Mimulus  visited,  but 
perhaps  the  night  moths  pay  them  frequent  visits;  they 
could  find  them  easily.  The  red  flowers  seem  to  be  visited  by 
humming  birds  more  frequently  than  the  other  varieties  ; 
perhaps  where  the  red  flowers  prevail,  it  is  because  they  are 
near  humming  birds'  haunts.  You  will  occasionally  see 
large  bees  forcing  entrance  through  the  closed  throat  of  the 
other  Mimulus. 

But  both  kinds  of  Mimulus  have  excellent  devices  for 
making  the  most  of  a  few  visits.  Close  against  the  upper 
lip,  or  roof,  of  the  flower  lie  the  stigmas  and  anthers.  The 
stigma  consists  of  two  lips,  which  lie  open  if  the  flower 
has  not  been  recently  visited  ;  touch  the  lips,  and  they 
promptly  close  ;  so,  if  the  stigma  is  touched  by  a  guest's  head 
with  pollen  on  it,  what  is  left  there  is  securely  shut  in. 
The  anthers  are  peculiar  ;  by  looking  closelyryou  will  find 
that  there  are  really  four  of  them,  each  with  two  cells  ;  they 
lie  close  together,  quite  below  the  stigma.  Press  against 
them  and  see  how  they  open  and  leave  pollen  on  your 
finger,  just  as  it  would  be  left  on  the  head  of  a  large  insect 
or  of  a  humming  bird  crowding  into  the  flower  to  reach  the 
honey.  Notice  that  the  Mimulus  needs  but  four  stamens 
and  one  pistil.  You  will  find  that  all  plants  of  high  rank 
are  economical.  The  members  of  these  bilabiate  families 
have  rarely  more  than  four  stamens,  and  many  of  them 
succeed  with  only  two. 

The  Collinsia,  Fig.  53,  sometimes  called  innocence, 
belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  Mimulus.  It,  too,  has  a 
bilabiate  corolla,  four  stamens  and  one  pistil.  The  lower 
lip,  of  course,  consists  of  three  united  petals,  but  the  mid- 
dle petal  is  folded  so  that  it  resembles  the  keel  of  the 
lupine;  in  fact,  it  serves  the  same  purpose;  it  enfolds  the 
stamens  and  pistil,  protecting  the  pollen  and  stigma,  but 
when  a  bee  alights  on  the  lower  lip,  the  fold  spreads  enough 
to  allow  pollen  or  stigma  to  rub  against  its  body.  The 

140 


Fig.  53.     INNOCENCE—  Collinsia  bicolor. 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

Collinsia  does  not  furnish  so  much  pollen  as  the  lupine, 
but  the  supply  lasts  a  long  time,  because  the  anthers  shed 
pollen  one '  after  another;  besides,  the  Collinsia  provides 
honey,  saving  it  for  the  bees,  and  advertising  it  by  pretty 
spots  and  lines.  The  stigmas  are  mature  in  the  older 
flowers. 

Another  member  of  this  family  is  the  owl's-clover,  or 
the  painter's  brush,  Fig.  54.  The  pink  or  purplish  and 
white  flowers,  grow  together  in  a  very  social  way,  and  the 
little  leaves  or  bracts  among  them  have  their  tips  white 
or  pink,  thus  helping  to  make  the  cluster  showy.  Each 
flower  keeps  its  honey  at  the  bottom  of  a  tube  too  deep  and 
narrow  for  bees  and  small  insects,  yet  it  dares  to  keep  its 
stigma,  which  is  like  a  fuzzy  ball,  quite  above  its  anthers; 
that  is,  the  flower  trusts  entirely  to  its  guests  for  pollina- 
tion. Now  the  anthers  are  tucked  away  in  the  upper  lip, 
and  the  queer,  puffy,  white,  lower  lip  is  not  large  enough 
for  a  platform,  still  some  bees  know  how  to  get  the  pollen. 
They  cling  to  the  upper  lip  while  they  drag  out  the  pollen, 
and  so  must  strike  the  stigma.  Butterflies  and  moths 
seem  to  be  the  preferred  guests;  and  the  white  lower  lip 
shows  night  moths  the  way  to  the  honey. 

The  other  flower  in  the  same  picture,  has  several 
common  names,  painted  cup,  scarlet  painter's  brush,  Indian 
plume,  etc.  It  is  a  plant  beloved  by  the  humming  birds. 
The  tips  of  the  bracts  and  the  calyxes,  as  well  as  the  corollas, 
are  scarlet,  the  humming  bird's  favorite  color;  and  the 
honey  is  beyond  the  reach  of  most  other  guests.  The  lower 
lip  of  the  flower  can  scarcely  be  discerned,  but  a  platform  is 
of  no  use  to  humming  birds.  You  have  seen  them  dart  from 
cluster  to  cluster,  pausing  the  merest  instant  at  each  flower 
as  they  sip  its  honey.  No  other  guest  is  half  so  swift,  so  it 
is  not  strange  that  so  many  flowers  reserve  their  honey 
specially  for  humming  birds.  When  the  painted  cup  grows 
in  masses,  one  rarely  fails  to  see  the  birds  paying  their  visits; 


Fig.  64.     OWL'S  CLOVER  AND  PAINTED  CUP-  Ortbocarpus  purpurascens  and 
Castilleia  par  <vi flora. 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

and  when  there  are  only  scattered  plants,  the  clusters  are 
so  showy,  and  last  so  long,  that  the  flowers  can  be  pretty 
sure  of  a  visit  sooner  or  later;  at  any  rate,  they  make  no 
provision  for  self  pollination. 

Another  group  in  this  family  is  best  called  by  its 
botanical  name,  Pentstemon.  Scarlet  Pentstemons  are 
often  called  honeysuckles,  and  violet  or  blue  ones,  bearded 
tongues.  The  Pentstemon  in  Fig.  55,  is  a  violet  one, 
and  there  is  a  picture  of  a  climbing,  scarlet  Pentstemon  in 
Fig.  71.  Another  scarlet  one,  with  long,slender  flowers,  is 
sometimes  called  the  scarlet  bugler ;  in  Southern  California 
it  begins  blooming  in  February,  and  its  brilliant  clusters 
last  until  mid-summer  ;  the  violet  one,  also,  is  in  flower 
nearly  all  the  year.  There  are  many  Pentstemons  that 
bloom  only  in  summer  time,  the  greater  part  of  them  being 
mountain  plants.  The  name  Pentstemon,  or  fifth  stamen, 
is  given  from  the  fact  that  there  are  five  filaments,  but,  as 
you  can  see,  one  of  these  has  no  anther  and  so  is  not  a  true 
stamen  ;  still  it  has  its  use.  Pull  off  a  corolla  and  look 
through  it  as  you  would  through  a  telescope.  You  will 
see  that  the  four  true  stamens  curve  toward  each  other,  and 
nearly  meet,  forming  a  dome-shaped  screen  just  above  the 
honey,  while  just  above  this,  the  fifth  stamen  crosses  from 
one  side  of  the  flower  to  the  other,  so  leaving  a  very  narrow 
entrance  to  the  honey. 

All  Pentstemons,  then,  are  exclusive  flowers.  The 
scarlet  ones  have  tubes  too  long  for  the  bees,  and  invite 
humming  birds;  the  blue  and  violet  flowers  admit  bees,  but 
some  kinds,  only  the  largest  ones.  Anthers  and  stigmas  are 
always  against  the  upper  part  of  the  corolla,  and  are  sure 
to  be  struck  by  a  large  guest.  The  lower  lip  of  the  scarlet 
flowers  is  not  conspicuous,  in  fact  it  can  hardly  be  made 
out  at  all  in  the  scarlet  bugler,  but  humming  birds  need  no 
platform;  the  blue  Pentstemons  have  broad  lower  lips, 
which  form  good  platforms.  There  are  insects  that  take 

144 


BILABIATE  FLOWERS 


Fig.  55.    THE  VIOLET  PENTSTKMON— Tentstemon  heleropbyllm. 

10  145 


CALIFORNIA   PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

revenge  on  the  Pentstemons  for  their  exclusiveness.  They 
find  the  tubes  too  narrow,  or  else  they  are  barred  out  from 
the  honey  by  the  interlacing  stamens,  but  they  have  dis- 
covered that  the  corolla  walls  are  thin,  so  they  bite  through 
them,  making  neat  little  holes  through  which  they,  and 
other  short-tongued  insects,  can  sup  honey.  Of  course  this 
is  stealing,  for  these  insects  touch  neither  anthers  nor  stig- 
mas, and  so  do  not  carry  pollen  for  the  flowers. 

The  mints,  hoarhound,  Salvias  and  sages,  are  bilabiate 
flowers,  and  they  are  nearly  related  to  the  others  we  have 
been  studying  ;  but  botanists  put  them  in  another  family 
because  their  ovaries  separate  into  four  parts.  In  the 
valleys  of  Southern  California,  native  mints  are  not  com- 
mon, and  the  hoarhound,  being  a  sturdy  weed,  will  be 
studied  later;  but  the  Salvias  and  sages  are  abundant,  and 
are  well  worth  considering  now.  Most  of  them  have  their 
flowers  arranged  in  compact  heads  scattered  along  the 
stems.  The  flowers  have  but  two  stamens  and  one  style. 

The  Salvia  of  Fig.  56  is  a  very  common  one  on  gravelly 
hillsides.  Its  flowers  have  deep  blue  corollas,  but  the 
sharp  pointed  bracts  and  calyxes  are  much  more  conspicu- 
ous, being  a  rich  brownish  red,  sometimes  nearly  wine- 
colored.  The  Indians  call  the  plant  the  little  chia,  and 
prize  its  seeds  very  highly  for  food.  There  is  another 
Salvia,  the  big  chia,  or  the  thistle -leaved  Salvia.  You 
are  sure  to  remember  this  plant  if  you  have  seen  or  handled 
it,  because  of  its  beauty  of  color  and  its  ability  to  defend 
itself.  Every  point  on  leaf,  bract  and  calyx,  is  tipped  with 
a  sharp  spine,  yet  the  whole  plant  is  clothed  with  the  most 
exquisite  mantle  of  loosely  spun,  cobwebby  hairs  ;  while, 
standing  out  against  this  grey-green  ground,  are  the  airy 
lavender  flowers  with  their  delicate  slashes  and  frills. 

In  Fig.  57  are  two  common  sages  of  Southern  Califor- 
nia. No.  i,  the  button  sage,  or  black  sage,  No.  2,  the 
white  sage,  so  famous  as  a  bee  plant.  Both  sages  and 

146 


Fig.  56. 


CHIA—Salvta  Columbaria. 

147 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

Salvias  have  exclusive  flowers,  the  corolla  tubes  being 
sufficiently  long  and  slender  to  keep  the  honey  for  desirable 
guests.  The  sages  make  exclusiveness  more  certain  by 
having  tufts  of  hairs  in  the  corolla  tubes.  The  little  chia 
invites  hive  bees,  and  is  almost  sure  to  be  pollinated  by 
them  because  of  its  peculiar  stamens;  perhaps  you  can  study 
them  out.  The  big  chia  invites  only  bumble-bees  to  its 
honey,  but  hive  bees  gather  its  pollen ;  both  kinds  of 
guests  seem  afraid  to  trust  themselves  to  the  delicate 
flowers;  they  clutch  at  all  of  the  stamens,  styles  and  fringes 
within  reach,  so  that  the  bumble-bee  is  sometimes  sprawl- 
ing over  several  flowers  at  the  same  time ;  in  this  way, 
they  may  often  rub  pollen  on  stigmas,  but  they  are  not  sure 
to  render  this  service. 

The  black  sage  has  surer  methods,  as  you  can  easily 
see  for  yourselves.  The  flowers  are  blue,  the  bees'  own 
color;  they  are  usually  of  the  proper  size  to  exact  service 
from  hive  bees,  and,  of  course,  from  native  bees  of  equal  or 
greater  size.  The  younger  flowers  hold  their  anthers  just 
where  the  bee's  head  will  strike  them  when  he  comes  for 
honey;  the  anthers  shed  pollen  downward,  and  as  bees 
leave  the  flowers  you  can  see  that  their  heads  are  blue  with 
pollen.  The  older  flowers  put  their  stigmas  in  nearly  the 
same  place,  and  as  the  bees  enter  you  can  see  the  polleny 
heads  strike  them. 

The  white  sage  has  a  curiously  folded  lower  lip  that 
seems  designed  to  bar  out  all  but  the  strongest  bees,  and  it 
is  very  amusing  to  watch  the  bees  on  the  flowers.  Big 
bumble-bees  skilfully  unfold  this  lower  lip,  but  they  seem 
afraid  to  trust  their  whole  weight  to  it,  and  cling  to  the 
flower  by  thrusting  their  legs  over  the  two  stamens. 
This  brings  the  anthers  against  their  bodies  near  the  base 
of  the  wings.  The  mature  stigmas  of  the  older  flowers  are 
likely  to  rub  against  this  pollen -covered  surface,  so  bumble- 
bees usually  pollinate  the  flowers.  But  hive  bees,  also,  are 

148 


Fig.  57.     SAGES— Audibertias. 
1.  Black  sage,    A.  stacbyoides.     2.  White  sage,  A.  polystachya. 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

clever  enough  to  unfold  the  lower  lip  and  get  the  honey, 
and  they  never  touch  anther  or  stigma.  So  it  appears  that 
the  native  California  bees  deal  fairly  with  the  white  sage, 
but  the  immigrant  hive  bees  simply  steal  from  the  flowers 
tons  and  tons  of  honey  that  we  in  turn  take  from  the  bees. 

The  sages  provide  rich  stores  of  honey,  and  the  hum- 
ming birds  know  this  very  well;  so,  although  they  must 
share  with  the  bees,  they  are  frequently  seen  visiting  the 
flowers.  And  how  rapidly  do  yon  think  they  can  make 
calls  ?  I  once  counted  those  paid  by  one  humming  bird  to 
the  black  sage;  it  visited  sixty-five  flowers  in  one  minute. 
A  sage  with  large  crimson  flowers  is  not  rare  in  Southern 
California,  but  it  is  an  herb  with  very  disagreeable  foliage, 
and  it  grows  only  in  shady  places,  so  it  is  not  commonly 
known  except  by  the  humming  birds;  it  keeps  all  of  its 
honey  for  them,  and  they  seem  to  find  it  readily. 

The  blue-curls,  which  has  been  mentioned  in  other 
chapters, — see  No.  2,  Fig.  15 — belongs  to  the  mint  family, 
and  if  you  keep  a  sharp  lookout  you  are  likely  to  find  many 
other  flowers  belonging  to  one  of  these  bilabiate  families. 
This  is  specially  true  in  the  summer  time  in  the  mountains, 
where  there  are  other  mints  and  sages  and  many  kinds  of 
Mimulus  and  Pentstemon.  It  is  not  strange  that  these 
flowers  of  high  rank  are  more  common  in  the  late  spring 
and  summer,  when  there  are  more  humming  birds  and 
large  insects;  for  probably  the  success  of  these  families  is 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  they  know  so  well  how  to  se- 
cure ample  returns  for  their  hospitality. 


150 


COMPOSITE 


CHAPTER   XII. 


SOCIAL    FLOWERS. 

Botanists  do  not  fully  agree  as  to  the  rank  of  certain 
plant  families,  but  the  first  place  is  generally  accorded  to 
tfee  family  Composite,  which  includes  the  sunflower,  dai- 
sies, tidy -tips,  the  thistle,  dandelion  and  the  like. 

Find  a  sunflower  that  has  been  open  for  several  days 
and  examine  the  darker  central  part.  It  is  easily  seen  that 
it  consists  of  very  many  slender,  goblet-shaped,  yellow  flow- 
ers tipped  with  brown  or  purple.  These  closely  packed 
flowers  have  not  a  green  calyx;  they  could  have  no  use  for 
one.  In  the  sunflower,  each  calyx  is  reduced  to  two  or 
three  scales.  The  corolla  has  its  five  petals  united  nearly 
to  the  tip;  perhaps  you  will  find  traces  of  honey  at  the  base 
of  the  tube.  To  study  stamens  and  pistil,  you  need  to 
split  open  the  little  flower.  The  five,  dark  anthers  are 
united  into  a  tube,  and  they  shed  their  pollen  inward.  The 
pistil  consists  of  an  ovary,  which  is  below  the  rest  of  the 
flower,  and  one  style,  which  is  split  at  the  top,  exposing 
two  rough,  moist  surfaces,  the  stigmas.  Perhaps  you  can 
see  that  the  upper  part  of  the  style  is  covered  with  little 
bristles;  under  the  microscope  it  looks  like  a  brush  for 
cleaning  bottles  or  lamp  chimneys.  So  we  will  remember 
that  in  every  tiny  flower  this  style,  like  a  bottle  brush,  fits 
closely  in  the  tube  formed  by  the  anthers,  and  that  the  in- 
ner surface  of  the  anther  tube  is  covered  with  pollen. 

151 


Fig.  58.     SUNFLOWER— Heliantbw  annuus. 


COMPOSURE 

Now  look  again  at  the  entire  sunflower,  which  you  see 
is  not  a  single  flower  at  all,  but  a  flower  cluster.  Laying  next 
to  the  bright  yellow  circumference,  is  a  ring  of  tubular  flow- 
ers that  have  their  pistils  extending  beyond  the  anthers, 
the  tips  curled  back,  exposing  the  stigmas;  then  comes  a 
ring  of  flowers  with  the  style  tips  just  visible,  or  perhaps 
with  a  tiny  heap  of  pollen  on  the  top  of  the  anthers;  within 
this  ring,  no  pistils  can  be  seen.  The  story  now  is  not 
hard  to  read.  When  the  flowers  first  open,  the  brush-like 
style  is  still  within  the  tube  of  anthers,  but  it  keeps  on 
growing,  and,  as  it  pushes  its  way  through  this  chimney 
lined  with  pollen  dust,  it  sweeps  out  the  pollen  before  it. 
So  every  little  flower  first  furnishes  pollen  for  other  flow- 
ers, then  spreads  out  its  own  stigmas. 

Now  examine  the  bright  yellow  part  of  the  sunflower. 
Each  yellow  ray  is  really  a  flower,  but  an  imperfect  one. 
There  is  a  trace  of  ovary  and  calyx,  but  no  true  stigma, 
and  no  hint  of  anthers.  The  main  part  is  the  corolla,  and 
a  very  peculiar  one  it  is!  At  the  base  it  is  tubular,  like 
many  other  corollas,  but  for  the  rest  of  the  way  it  seems 
to  have  been  split  open  and  laid  out  flat,  so  it  is  called  a 
strap-shaped  corolla.  These  outside  flowers  are  also  called 
ray  flowers.  Since  they  have  neither  stigmas  nor  pollen, 
they  cannot  help  directly  in  seed-making,  and  seem  to  exist 
only  for  show. 

There  still  remains  the  outside  circle  of  green  about 
the  sunflower;  this,  like  the  outside  leaves,  or  bracts,  of  any 
flower  cluster,  is  called  the  involucre.  lyet  us  notice  the 
sunflower's  devices  for  seed-making,  or  rather  for  pollina- 
tion, which  must  precede  seed-making'.  Each  individual 
flower  keeps  its  own  stigmas  folded  together  as  it  sweeps 
out  the  pollen,  so  it  depends  upon  its  neighbors  for  pollin- 
ation. Sometimes  the  stigma  must  strike  the  pollen  of 
neighboring  flowers  as  the  style  tips  turn  back,  but  the 
flowers  can  surely  depend  on  insects  for  carrying  pollen, 

153 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

since  they  furnish  an  abundance  of  it,  and  some  honey  be- 
sides. Flying  guests  are  attracted  by  the  great  yellow  ray 
flowers,  and  so  are  likely  to  begin  collecting  pollen  from 
the  outside  tubular  flowers.  These  flowers  have  stigmas 
exposed,  as  you  remember,  and  the  guests  bring  them 
pollen  from  other  sunflowers  they  have  been  visiting;  this 
is  supposed  to  be  better  for  them  than  pollen  from  nearer 
neighbors.  As  the  insect  goes  on  collecting  pollen  from 
the  inner  flowers,  fresh  supplies  cling  to  him  to  be  carried 
to  the  next  head. 

You  have  probably  collected  many  flowers  that  are,  in 
structure,  similar  to  the  sunflower.  By  April,  or  even 
March,  members  of  this  family  are  among  the  most  common 
kinds  of  wild  flowers.  The  early  kinds  are  usually  yellow; 
they  are  all  commonly  called  daisies.  There  is  one  that  in 
April  quite  carpets  many  acres  of  untilled  ground  in  South- 
ern California,  making  patches  of  yellow  that  can  be  seen 
miles  away;  hence  the  plants  are  sometimes  called  golden 
fields.  These  flowers  furnish  considerable  honey  as  well 
as  pollen,  and  have  a  marked  fragrance;  as  one  would 
expect,  they  are  thronged  with  insect  guests,  especially 
flies.  Ranchmen  say  that  these  flowers,  because  of  the 
flies  they  attract,  are  the  cause  of  much  suffering  to  horses 
and  cattle.  Among  the  prettiest  of  these  daisy-like  flow- 
ers, are  tidy- tips,  which  take  their  name  from  the  white 
tips  of  the  ray  flowers.  Notice  especially  their  calyxes  as 
the  corollas  wither  and  the  fruits  mature;  you  can  readily 
think  out  their  use. 

Not  all  members  of  the  family  Composite  have  the 
two  kinds  of  flowers.  You  will  find  many  of  them  quite 
without  strap-shaped  flowers,  and  others  consisting  en- 
tirely of  them.  Some  of  the  latter  are  the  dandelion, 
chicory,  sow-thistle  and  the  pretty  summer  weed  in  Fig. 
12,  Chapter  III.  Most  of  the  flower-heads  of  this  group 
remain  open  but  a  few  hours  each  day,  and  the  plants 

154 


COMPOSITE 

have  milky,  sticky  juice,  so  it  is  rather  troublesome  to 
study  them  in  the  school  room,  but  their  fruits  and  the 
pretty  calyxes  that  cling  to  them,  can  be  easily  watched. 

The  thistle  is  one  of  the  Compositae  that  has  no  strap- 
shaped  flowers,  and  indeed  it  does  not  need  flowers  that 
exist  for  show  alone,  because  each  one  of  its  tubular  florets 
is,  in  itself  a  thing  of  beauty,  with  its  fluffy  calyx  and 
slashed,  lavender  corolla,  tipped  with  crimson.  Like  many 
other  Compositae,  the  thistle  provides  entertainment  for 
two  different  classes  of  guests  ;  there  is  pollen  for  the 
shorter-tongued  insects,  and  honey  served  in  slender  cups 
for  guests  of  higher  rank.  Most  of  our  California  Com- 
positae are  white  or  yellow,  the  most  conspicuous  colors, 
and  hence  the  colors  most  useful  in  attracting  the  lower 
insects  ;  but  the  thistle  seems  to  aim  to  please  all  classes 
by  offering  plenty  of  white  pollen  to  the  common  herd, 
and  keeping  honey  in  blue  and  crimson  flowers  for  bees, 
humming  birds  and  butterflies.  At  any  rate,  these  more 
aristocratic  guests  do  frequent  the  flowers. 

As  the  dry  season  advances,  you  will  find  that  a  large 
number  of  the  plants  that  are  able  to  survive,  belong  to  this 
family,  Compositae.  You  will  remember  that  many  of  our 
autumn  plants  belong  here.  We  could  trace  their  success 
partly  to  their  ability  to  defend  and  protect  themselves  by 
means  of  hairs,  spines,  thick  coats,  resinous  matter,  and  so 
forth ;  they  have  also  many  clever  devices  for  scattering 
seed,  but  -the  fact  that,  in  this  family,  the  flowers  live 
close  together  in  flower  cities,  or  communities,  has  probably 
very  much  to  do  with  their  success.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it 
is  by  far  the  most  successful  of  all  plant  families.  Botan- 
ists tell  us  that  about  ten  thousand  out  of  the  one  hundred 
thousand  kinds  of  known  flowering  plants,  belong  to  this 
family. 

Another  large  family  is  the  Umbelliferae.     As  the  name 
implies,  the  flower   cluster  is  like   a  little   umbrella,  an 

155 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


Fig.  59.    THISTLE— Cnicus  occidental 
156 


COMPOSITE 

umbel,  the  botanists  call  it.  The  little  flowers  that  make 
up  the  cluster  are  not  of  so  high  a  rank  as  the  florets  in  the 
Composite .  They  do  not  unite  their  petals  into  a  cup  for 
honey  ;  instead  of  this,  the  honey  forms  a  thin  layer  over 
the  center  of  the  flower,  and  so  can  be  reached  by  the 
humblest  guests.  The  color,  as  one  would  expect,  is  almost 
always  white  or  yellow.  The  flowers  in  any  cluster 
usually  all  look  alike,  but  sometimes  the  outside  ones  are 
larger  than  the  others,  and  rather  frequently  some  flowers 
have  only  anthers  mature,  while  others  have  stigmas 
ready  for  pollen. 

Some  of  the  earliest  plants  to  appear  after  the 
rains,  belong  to  this  family.  One  of  these,  with  its 
underground  part,  in  shown  in  Fig.  22,  Chap.  V.  Its 
rather  homely  little  flowers  are  out  by  January,  .and  several 
kinds  of  similar  Umbelliferae  are  abundant  all  through  the 
winter  and  early  spring.  By  May  their  fruits  are  mature; 
some  of  these  are  like  the  fruit  in  Fig.  60  ;  you  can  see  how 
the  seeds  hang  by  delicate  threads  until  a  wind  scatters 
them.  There  is  another  group,  with  very  prickly,  or  bur- 
like,  little  fruits,  which  you  have  probably  helped  to  dis- 
tribute by  means  of  your  clothing. 

During  the  later  spring  and  early  summer  months,  the 
wild  celery,  hemlock  and  several  other  vigorous  Umbelli- 
ferae, flourish  in  damp  places.  In  the  towns  of  Southern 
California,  one  of  the  most  common  wayside  summer  weeds 
is  the  fennel,  another  member  of  this  family  ;  it  has  very 
delicate,  feathery  foliage  and  yellow  flowers.  The  plant  is 
strongly  scented,  as  are  many  other  Umbelliferae,  seeds  of 
which  you  probably  know,  such  as  caraway,  coriander, 
anise  and  dill.  The  pungent  taste  must  protect  these  from 
the  attacks  of  animals.  Many  Umbelliferae  are  actually 
poisonous  both  to  man  and  animals. 

There  are  many  other  plant  families,  of  various  ranks, 
that  have  adopted  the  plan  of  massing  small  flowers  into 

157 


Fig.  60.     AN  UMBEXTJFERA-'P^rfawum  utriculatum. 
158 


COMPOSITE 

communities,  and  the  device  always  seems  to  be  successful. 
So  let  us  consider  for  a  moment  the  advantages  of  flowers 
in  cities,  over  solitary  flowers  or  flowers  in  small  clusters. 

You  have  read  perhaps,  or  have  heard  other  people  tell, 
of  times  when  each  man  had  to  make  his  own  house,  or 
fort,  or  castle,  and  defend  his  family  as  well  as  he  could 
against  enemies.  He  was  obliged  to  make  his  own  tools 
and  weapons,  raise  his  own  food,  and  make  his  own  cloth- 
ing from  wool,  flax  and  leather  that  he,  himself,  provided. 
But  as  a  country  or  a  race  becomes  older  and  more  civi- 
lized, as  we  say.  the  defense  of  the  people  is  left  to  one  class 
of  men,  the  police  or  soldiers ;  another  group  of  men  raise 
food ;  others  manufacture  tools,  furniture,  etc.;  so  each  man 
has  a  chance  to  do  one  thing  well.  In  civilized  countries, 
too,  there  are  some  people  who  seem  to  take  no  part  in 
the  toil  of  the  community,  the  leisure  classes,  we  call  them. 

In  our  sunflower  or  thistle  community,  the  involucre 
is  clearly  the  defensive  part  ;  besides,  it  may  aid  the  rest 
of  the  plant  in  food-making.  Since  the  involucre  takes 
the  place  of  individual  calyxes,  the  calyxes  may  be  devel- 
oped for  another  use  ;  so  we  see  them  becoming  floaters 
or  hooks  of  some  kind,  thus  aiding  in  seed  distribution. 
Some  of  the  little  flowers  furnish  pollen,  while  others  have 
stigmas  ready  for  its  germination,  and  still  others,  like 
the  ray  flowers  of  the  sunflower,  serve  simply  to  attract 
guests.  It  is  possible  that  our  leisure  classes,  correspond- 
ing to  ray  flowers,  may  also  be  of  some  use  to  our  com- 
munity. Another  advantage  of  flower-cities  is,  that  any 
good  that  comes,  like  the  insect  visits,  can  be  easily  shared 
by  all ;  just  as  men,  congregated  in  cities,  can  share,  with 
the  many  others,  good  schools,  good  music  and  other  city 
advantages. 


159 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


PLANT  FAHILIES.    PART  I.— ENDOQENS,  OR 
nONOCOTYLEDONS. 

By  a  plant  family  we  do  not  mean  a  group  of  plants  that 
have  the  same  parent  plant,  but  those  that  resemble  each 
other  in  other  certain  ways;  just  as  among  animals  the  lion 
and  tiger  belong  to  the  cat  family,  or  the  wolf  and  coyote 
to  the  dog  family.  Arranging  plants  in  families  is  called 
classification.  It  is  true  that  the  best  botanists  do  not  fully 
agree  in  their  way  of  classifying  plants,  still  there  are  many 
relationships  that  are  easily  seen,  and  it  is  a  pleasure  to  note 
them  ;  beside,  one  needs  to  know  something  about  plant 
families  in  order  to  use  books  about  plants. 

The  most  important  thing  a  plant  does,  is  to  produce 
other  plants  ;  so  its  way  of  doing  this  usually  counts  most 
in  classification.  You  remember  that  sea-mosses,  mould, 
toadstools  and  even  ferns,  grow  from  spores,  and  that  spores 
are  simple  plant  cells,  subject  to  very  many  dangers.  But 
nearly  all  the  plants  people  commonly  see  and  think  of  as 
plants,  produce  seeds  ;  and  a  seed,  as  we  have  seen,  instead 
of  being  a  mere  cell,  is  a  little  plant,  which  has  been  formed 
and  provided  with  some  food  before  leaving  the  parent  plant. 
So  the  whole  plant  world  is  divided  into  two  great  groups, 
seedless  plants  and  seed-bearing  plants ;  these  groups  are 
divided  into  smaller  groups,  which  are  again  divided,  and  so 
on,  long  Greek  or  Latin  names  being  given  to  all  the 
groups. 

160 


ENDOGENS  OR  MONOCOTYLEDONS 

Seed-bearing  plants  are  first  divided  into  those  that  do 
not  enclose  their  seeds  in  an  ovary  and  those  that  do. 
Pines  and  other  cone-bearers  belong  to  the  lower,  or  naked- 
seeded  group,  as  it  is  called.  But  it  is  only  when  the  cones 
are  very  small  that  the  seeds,  or  rather,  the  ovules,  are 
uncovered ;  they  then  lie  where  the  pollen  can  reach  them 
directly,  there  being  no  ovary,  style,  or  stigma  ;  but  the 
scales  of  the  cone  soon  close  about  the  developing  seeds, 
and  in  the  end  they  are  better  protected  than  most  other 
seeds.  So,  unless  you  are  a  botanist  and  study  the  repro- 
duction of  plants  with  the  microscope,  it  will  hardly  seem 
just  to  you  to  rank  the  sturdy  group  of  cone-bearers  lower 
than  many  insignificant  little  weeds. 

Perhaps  you  have  seen  the  pines  rising  above  the  winter 
snows  on  our  mountains,  and  have  read  of  the  great 
stretches  of  pine  forests  in  cold  north  countries  like  Norway 
or  Siberia,  or  the  colder  parts  of  our  own  country.  In  fact, 
cone-bearers  can  generally  brave  cold  better  than  drought, 
and  in  many  parts  of  California  they  do  not  grow  without 
irrigation.  The  Monterey  cypress  is  a  cone-bearer  much 
used  all  over  California  for  hedges  and  windbreaks  ;  the 
trimmed  trees  are  stiff  and  uninteresting,  but  near  Monterey 
the  cypresses  grow  naturally  on  the  wild,  rocky  coast,  some- 
times where  the  salt  water  splashes  them,  and  artists  love 
to  picture  these  sturdy  old  trees  with  their  knotted,  twisted 
limbs,  draped  with  long  grey  lichens. 

The' California  "  big  trees,"  too,  are  cone-bearers;  they 
are  famous  the  world  over,  and  you  probably  know  some 
wonderful  stories  about  them.  They  are  a  kind  of  red- 
wood, and  are  found  only  in  the  Sierras,  but  there  is 
another  kind  of  redwood  that  grows  in  the  magnificent 
forests  along  the  northern  coast  of  California;  the  story  of 
how  the  lumbermen  cut,  haul,  and  saw  these  trees  is  very 
interesting.  The  northern  Pacific  coast  has,  too,  some  of 
the  finest  pine  trees  in  the  world.  Can  you  think  of  some 
11  161 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

special  uses  for  the  timber  from  very  tall  pine  trees  ?  Think 
whether  the  family  of  cone-bearers  furnishes  a  considerable 
part  of  wood  used  in  building  and  manufacturing.  You 
will  decide  that,  whatever  rank  the  botanists  may  assign  to 
this  family,  it  is  certainly  a  very  interesting  and  useful  one. 

The  other  division  of  seed-bearing  plants,  the  division 
that  produces  seeds  in  ovaries,  is  divided  into  two  great 
classes.  To  illustrate  the  first  class,  collect  all  the  follow- 
ing that  you  can,  remembering  to  get  roots,  leaves,  flowers 
and  seeds  when  possible: — lilies  and  plants  resembling  lilies, 
such  as  Yucca,  gladiolus,  crocus,  flag;  different  kinds  of 
grasses,  including  wild  oats,  wheat,  barley  and  Indian 
corn  ;  callas,  cannas,  cat-tails,  rushes  and  tules.  Perhaps 
some  one  can  furnish  the  flowers  and  young  fruits  of  the 
banana,  palm  and  century  plants  ;  many  of  you  can  at  least 
watch  these  last  three  plants  out  of  doors. 

The  seeds  of  plants  of  this  group  are  usually  difficult  to 
examine,  but  they  all,  like  the  corn  and  onion  seeds,  have 
only  one  seed-leaf  or  cotyledon,  so  the  plants  are  called 
monocotyledons.  Cut  thin  slices  across  the  stems  of  these 
plants,  and  notice  how  the  woody  strands  are  arranged. 
They  are  more  compact  near  the  outside,  but  there 
are  some  scattered  strands  all  through  the  softer  central 
tissue,  or  pith,  as  it  is  called.  Stems  that  have  the  woody 
strands  arranged  in  this  way  are  called  endogenous,  and  so 
plants  of  this  group  are  endogens.  This  is  not  the  most 
economical  way  to  arrange  the  wood  ;  the  very  best  way  is 
for  stems  to  have  all  of  these  woody  strands  form  a  cylinder 
about  the  pith.  Most  grasses  omit  the  pith  entirely  except 
at  the  joints,  and  so  a  wheat  straw  can  support  many  times 
its  own  weight,  and  can  bend  with  the  winds  without 
breaking. 

Now  notice  the  leaves  of  this  group  of  plants.  Are 
they  usually  simple  or  compound  ?  Are  their  edges  notched 
and  cut,  or  entire  ?  Are  the  woody  strands,  or  veins,  paral- 

162 


ENDOGENS  OR  MONOCOTYLEDONS 

lei  or  netted  ?  How  are  they  arranged  in  the  buds  that  are 
unfolding  into  new  shoots  ?  Count  the  number  of  parts  in 
the  flower.  What  seems  to  be  the  most  common  number  ? 
Examine  the  underground  parts.  How  many  of  them  have 
storehouses  ?  Perhaps  now  you  can  see  some  reason  for 
putting  these  plants  in  the  same  group. 

One  division  of  the  group  of  endogens,  is  made  up  of 
the  lily  family  and  nearly-related  families.  Recall  what 
you  found  out  about  the  cluster-lily,  Fig.  33,  and  the  Mari- 
posas,  Fig.  48.  California  has  many  other  wild  lilies,  some 
of  them  so  beautiful  that  they  are  grown  in  gardens  and 
much  prized  in  foreign  countries.  There  are  the  brown 
lilies  that  come  early,  and  there  are  other  Brodiseas  besides 
the  cluster  lilies;  the  true  wild  onion  has  very  pretty 
flowers,  and  is  common  in  many  places;  then  in  the  moun- 
tains there  are  several  kinds  of  large  lilies,  some  of  which, 
like  the  Humboldt,  or  tiger  lily,  the  leopard  lily  and  Parry's 
lily,  come  in  the  summer  months.  In  May  children  in 
Southern  California  may  be  able  to  get  the  Yucca;  also  some 
smaller,  bright  yellow  lilies  that  grow  in  large  umbels,  and 
are  sometimes  called  golden  star  lilies. 

Collect  all  the  kinds  of  wild  lilies  you  can  find  and  look 
also  in  your  gardens  for  plants  with  flowers  that  look  like 
lilies.  From  these  and  from  pictures,  you  will  find  that  the 
true  lilies  have  always  three  petals,  three  sepals,  twice 
three  stamens,  and  a  three-celled  ovary  that  is  called 
superior  because  the  other  parts  start  below  it  and  are  not 
united  with  it.  Now  any  flower  having  this  sort  of  an 
ovary  and  the  other  parts  in  these  numbers,  belongs  to  the 
lily  family;  remembering  this  fact  will  help  you  in  finding 
from  books  the  names  of  flowers  new  to  you.  In  gardens, 
you  are  likely  to  find  some  very  pretty  flowers  with  parts  in 
threes,  but  with  inferior  ovaries,  so  that  the  seeds  seem  to 
be  in  the  stem;  botanists  put  these  flowers  into  two  other 
families;  the  Amaryllis  family,  which  includes  the  Chinese 

163 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

lily,  Freesia,  century  plant,  snow  drop,  narcissus,  jonquil 
and  the  like,  and  the  Iris  family,  which  includes,  besides 
the  Iris,  or  flag,  our  blue-eyed  grass,  Fig.  61,  the  gladiolus, 
and  crocus.  The  Iris  family  has  three  stamens,  the  Ama- 
ryllis has  six.  You  are  likely  to  find  some  very  stately 
true  lilies  among  the  garden  flowers ;  some  of  the  most 
elegant  of  these  foreigners  come  from  Japan.  The  pretty 
South  American  climber  that  we  call  smilax,  belongs  to 
the  lily  family;  so  do  the  hyacinth,  red  hot  poker,  tulip, 
and  the  more  humble  but  useful  onion  and  asparagus.  Men 
find  uses  for  some  other  members  of  this  group.  In  Mexico, 
where  the  century  plant  grows  abundantly,  several  kinds 
of  intoxicating  drinks  are  made  from  its  sap,  the  strong 
wood  fibres  are  made  into  ropes,  and  the  underground  stems 
furnish  material  for  soap.  The  stems  of  one  California 
Yucca,  and  the  bulbs  of  our  soap-root  are  also  used  as  soap. 
Some  members  of  the  group  furnish  medicines.  The  rushes, 
which  are  nearly  related  to  the  lilies,  are  used  for  weaving 
chairs,  baskets,  etc.;  the  pith  of  their  stems  was  formerly 
used  for  wicks  ;  perhaps  you  have  heard  old  people  tell  of 
rush  lights. 

On  the  whole,  from  our  standpoint,  this  group  seems 
to  be  more  ornamental  than  useful;  but  we  must  remember 
that  for  the  flowers,  beauty  is  use,  and  that  these  flowers 
with  their  beautiful  forms,  colors  and  fragrance  will  furnish 
us  many  wonderful  stories,  if  we  have  the  wit  to  read  them. 
The  most  wonderful  story  of  all,  perhaps,  is  that  of  the 
Yucca.  This  plant  is  one  that  knows  how  to  meet  hard 
times  ;  it  can  gather  and  store  moisture  well  enough  to 
flourish  in  the  desert  ;  it  makes  and  stores  so  much  food 
that  when  the  right  season  comes,  there  shoots  up,  in  a  few 
days,  a  stem  sometimes  twelve  feet  high,  bearing  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  flower  clusters  in  the  world.  The  leaves 
can  defend  themselves  so  well  that  some  kinds  of  Yucca  are 
called  Spanish  bayonet ;  and  yet  the  plant  depends  for  the 


ENDOGENS  OR  MONOCOTYLEDONS 


Fig.  61.     BLUE-EYED  GRASS— Sisyrincbium  beUum. 

165 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

most  important  thing  of  all,  its  seed  production,  on  a  tiny 
moth  no  longer  than  your  finger  nail.  The  Yucca  keeps 
its  anthers  quite  away  from  its  big  stigma,  and  does  not 
even  provide  honey  for  the  moth;  but  the  white,  fragrant 
flowers  are  easily  found  at  night.  The  moth  herself  does 
not  need  food,  but  she  knows  that  when  her  eggs  hatch, 
her  little  larvae  will  be  very  hungry  indeed,  and  the  only 
food  they  can  live  on  is  the  Yucca  seed.  But  she  seems  to 
know  something  much  more  wonderful  than  this,  and  that 
is,  that  the  Yucca  will  not  produce  seed  unless  the  pollen 
reaches  the  stigma.  At  any  rate  this  is  what  she  does  : 
Before  she  lays  her  eggs,  she  gathers  a  mass  of  pollen 
bigger  than  her  own  head ;  she  next  lays  her  eggs  in  the 
ovary  of  a  flower,  and  then  immediately  crams  the  pollen 
down  the  concave  stigma  of  this  flower.  So  the  big  Yucca 
can  trust  to  the  mother  instinct  of  this  tiny  creature,  for 
while  her  babies  eat  part  of  the  seeds,  there  are  quite 
enough  left  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  Yuccas. 

Another  group  of  monocotyledons  is  made  up  of  families 
so  different  in  appearance  that  you  would  never  guess 
their  relationship.  It  contains,  for  instance,  the  largest  of 
all  monocotyledons,  the  palms,  and  also  the  smallest  of 
flowering  plants,  the  duckweed,  a  tiny  water  plant  hardly 
as  large  as  a  common  pin.  There  are  several  other  water 
plants  that  belong  to  this  group,  flowering  plants  that 
either  float  on  the  water  or  grow  along  the  margin  of  ponds. 
Perhaps  the  one  you  would  know  best  is  the  cat- tail,  or 
bulrush.  But  the  best  known  of  this  group  is  the  call  a, 
which  you  have  already  studied.  All  these  plants  are 
related  because,  like  the  calla,  they  have  small  simple 
flowers,  usually  many  of  them  crowded  together.  The 
clusters  differ  almost  as  much  as  the  plants.  There  may 
be  a  smooth  spike  surrounded  by  a  showy  involucre  like 
the  calla,  or  a  brown,  velvety  one  like  the  cat-tail,  or  a  much 
branched  but  compact  cluster,  as  in  the  palms,  or  one  so 

166 


ENDOGENS  OR  MONOCOTYLEDON^ 


Fig.  62.— Yucca  Wbipplei. 


167 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

inconspicuous  that  you  can  hardly  find  it,  as  in  the  pond 
weeds. 

The  palm  family  is  by  far  the  most  useful  one  in  the 
group.  In  our  climate  we  cultivate  palms  for  ornament, 
but  in  tropical  countries  they  furnish  food,  drink,  clothing, 
houses,  boats,,  furniture,  utensils,  ornaments, — in  short 
everything  the  people  of  these  countries  require.  You  can 
find  out  many  interesting  things  about  the  most  useful  of 
these  trees,  the  cocoa  palm,  date  palm,  sago  palm,  etc.,  in 
text  books  on  Physical  Geography  or  in  Encyclopedias. 

By  far  the  most  useful  group  of  endogens  is  the  one 
that  consists  of  the  grass  family  and  the  nearly-related  sedges. 
When  you  know  that  the  grass  family  includes  wheat,  rice, 
oats, barley, corn, sugar-cane  and  bamboo,  you  will  admit  that, 
of  all  plant  families  in  the  world ,  this  must  be  the  one  most 
useful  to  man.  In  tropical  countries  some  grasses  become 
almost  trees,  the  bamboo,  for  instance;  the  cooler  countries 
furnish  many  of  the  most  valuable  of  this  group,  and  there 
are  some  grasses,  such  as  the  bunch  grasses  of  our  western 
plains,  that  can  adapt  themselves  to  drought  as  well  as  to 
cold. 

But  in  spite  of  all  differences  in  size  and  habit,  there  is 
a  strong  family  resemblance  among  the  grasses.  What 
seems  to  be  always  true  of  the  stems  of  the  leaves  ?  The 
flowers  you  have,  perhaps,  not  recognized  as  flowers,  because 
they  are  green  and  inconspicuous,  but  if  you  think  for  a 
moment,  you  will  know  that  the  heads  of  wheat,  the  ears 
and  tassels  of  corn,  and  the  plume-like  tops  of  the  oats,  are 
all  flower  clusters.  You  can  find  the  stamens  and  pistil  of 
the  flower,  and  perhaps  you  will  have  patience  to  make  out 
the  wrappings.  Of  course  the  absence  of  bright  color 
means  that  this  family  does  not  ask  for  insect  help,  but 
trusts  entirely  to  the  wind  for  pollination.  See  how  the 
ripe  anthers  hang,  like  banners,  from  slender  stems  so  that 
every  breath  of  wind  shakes  out  pollen ;  then  notice  the 

168 


Fig.  G3.     WILD  OATS— Jlvena  fatuc, 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

feathery  stigmas  that  serve  so  well  for  catching  pollen. 
The  stigmas  of  the  corn  are  the  lines  of  little  teeth  that 
extend  the  entire  length  of  the  styles,  or  silks.  And  so 
the  grasses  get  well  pollinated,  and  produce  enough  seed 
to  keep  up  the  supply  of  plants,  and  feed  countless  men 
and  animals  besides.  In  our  climate,  some  introduced 
grasses,  like  wheat  and  corn,  need  artificial  help,  that  is, 
they  must  be  cultivated  ;  'but  there  are  many  grasses,  native 
and  cultivated,  that  can  take  care  of  themselves  very  well 
indeed.  Find  some  of  the  Bermuda  grass  that  infests  the 
lawns,  and  see  why  it  spreads  so  fast.  What  helps  to  scat- 
ter the  foxtail  grass  and  the  wild  oats  ?  Notice  the  bristles 
of  these  grasses ;  run  them  up  and  down  between  your 
fingers  ;  can  you  see  the  use  of  the  little  barbs  on  them  ? 
Put  a  long  bristle  of  the  wild  oats  in  water,  then  take  it 
out  and  let  it  dry  in  the  sun  ;  wet  it  again.  What  do  you 
think  can  be  the  use  of  the  movements  it  makes  ?  Find 
other  grasses  with  bristles  of  like  habits. 

The  sedges  grow  in  moist  places,  and  resemble  the 
grasses.  What  is  commonly  called  the  tule,  in  California,  is 
really  a  sedge,  so  is  the  Papyrus  of  our  gardens.  Tules,  as 
you  probably  know,  are  used  to  build  huts  or  to  thatch 
adobe  houses,  and  the  Papyrus  was  once  used  for  paper ; 
but  generally  the  sedges,  like  their  neighbors  the  cat- tails 
and  rushes,  are  of  more  use  to  birds  and  water-fowl  than  to 
man.  They  often  defend  themselves  against  cattle  by 
sharp  teeth  along  the  edges  of  the  leaves. 

A  higher  group  of  endogens  contains  the  pine-apple, 
ginger  plant,  canna,  and  banana.  Perhaps  you  have  seen 
the  banana  bearing  fruit  in  California  ;  in  tropical  countries 
great  quantities  of  fruit  are  produced ;  in  fact,  bananas 
form  the  principal  food  of  millions  of  people.  The  bright 
flowers  of  the  canna  are  specially  interesting  ;  try  to  make 
out  the  parts  for  yourselves  ;  call  the  three,  small,  outside 
parts  the  sepals,  and  be  sure  to  find  the  stigma  and  pollen. 

170 


EN  DOG  ENS  OR  MONOCOTYLEDONS 

You  will  discover  that  the  stamens  and  pistil  are  like  petals 
and  are  scarlet  also,  and  that  the  flower  can  get  along 
with  one  one-celled  anther.  Can  you  guess  from  the  color 
what  carries  the  pollen  ?  You  probably  would  not  have  to 
watch  long  to  see  the  flowers  visited  by  the  most  desirable 
of  all  guests. 

The  orchid  group  is  one  of  the  highest,  and  perhaps 
quite  the  most  interesting,  of  endogens  ;  but  the  orchid 
family,  although  a  very  large  one,  does  not  find  the  Cali- 
fornia climate  congenial,  and  we  have  very  few  varieties. 
Perhaps  you  have  seen  orchids  in  greenhouses  or  in  florists' 
windows,  or  you  may  have  heard  or  read  about  them ;  of 
how  they  sometimes  grow  among  the  tree  tops  of  dense 
forests,  or  of  the  curious  forms  of  the  flowers.  Darwin 
wrote  an  entire  book  about  orchids,  and  it  contains  many 
wonderful  stories.  There  are  orchids  that  trap  their  insect 
guests  and  make  them  carry  pollen  in  order  to  escape ; 
there  is  one  kind  that  actually  hurls  masses  of  pollen  at 
bumble-bees'  backs,  where  they  stick  until  left  on  the 
stigma  of  another  flower  ;  another  kind  fastens  bags  of 
pollen  on  its  guests'  eyes.  This  last  kind  is  not  rare  in 
California,  though  its  flowers  are  not  so  large  as  those 
of  the  English  species  that  Darwin  writes  about.  It  is  an 
interesting  plant,  and  will  amply  repay  any  one  who 
has  the  patience  and  time  to  study  it. 


171 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


PLANT  FAniLIES.     PART  II.— EXOGENS,  OR 
DICOTYLEDONS. 

How  many  seedlings  can  you  recall  with  two  seed- 
leaves  or  cotyledons?  Aid  your  memories  by  turning  to 
Figs.  5,  6  and  8  in  Chapter  II.  These,  and  like  plants,  are 
called  dicotyledons.  Find  some  of  them  older  grown,  and 
cut  across  their  stems  to  see  how  their  woody  strands  are 
placed.  Plants  with  this  arrangement  of  wood  in  the  stem, 
which  is  the  best  possible,  are  called  exogens.  How  are 
the  strands,  or  veins,  arranged  in  the  leaves?  Compare  the 
leaf  of  the  castor  bean  with  that  of  the  corn,  for  instance. 
Which  do  you  think  the  stronger?  Which  group,  endo- 
gens  or  exogens,  has  the  greater  variety  in  form  of  leaves  ? 
Do  you  remember  why  some  plants  are  better  off  because  of 
their  slashed  or  divided  leaves?  Because  exogens,  or 
dicotyledons,  as  a  class,  are  better  able  to  meet  dangers 
than  endogens  or  monocotyledons,  they  are  considered  of 
higher  rank,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  they  are  more  use- 
ful to  man. 

Many  botanists  put  in  the  lowest  group  of  dicotyledons 
those  that  have  small,  incomplete,  and,  usually,  crowded 
flowers.  The  willow,  walnut,  sycamore,  alder,  oak  and  fig 
belong  here;  so  do  some  other  useful  trees,  which,  perhaps, 
you  do  not  know;  other  nut-bearing  trees,  such  as  the 
chestnut,  pecan  and  beech,  and  shade  and  timber  trees,  like 
the  elm  and  birch.  There  is  the  mulberry,  which  feeds 

172 


EXOGENS  OR  DICOTYLEDONS 


Fig.  64.     YEJRBA  MANSA—  tAnemopsis  dlifornica. 

173 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

silkworms,  and  its  cousin,  the  bread-fruit  tree  of  the  Pacific 
Islands,  and  there  are  some  interesting  and  useful  relatives 
of  the  fig,  one  of  which  you  may  find  out  by  yourselves  be- 
cause of  its  fruits;  it  is  the  India-rubber  tree  of  our  parks;  you 
can  guess  what  part  of  the  tree  becomes  the  rubber.  Another 
member  of  the  fig  family  is  called  the  cow-tree,  because  its 
juice  is  like  milk  and  is  good  to  drink. 

Some  members  of  this  group  are  not  trees.  There  is 
the  yerba  mansa,  Fig.  64,  which  is  also  called  alkali  weed. 
What  seems  to  be  a  flower,  is  really  a  cluster  of  small,  closely- 
packed  flowers,  as  you  can  see  for  yourselves.  Many  people 
think  the  yerba  mansa  useful  as  a  medicine;  it  has  a  relative 
in  India  whose  ground  berries  we  call  black  pepper.  One 
family  in  this  group  is  troublesome  rather  than  useful; 
that  is  the  nettle  family.  You  probably  think  our  own 
nettles  bad  enough,  but  in  Australia,  nettles  become  trees, 
and  their  sting  is  very  severe. 

Next  to  this  group  comes  one  we  might  call  the  weed 
group,  because  it  contains  so  many  of  our  common  weeds. 
We  shall  study  the  weeds  in  another  chapter,  but  some  of 
the  weediest  of  families  have  members  that  have  been  culti- 
vated to  usefulness;  the  beet  and  rhubarb,  for  instance,  are 
nearly  related  to  the  dock  and  knot-weed.  Other  weedy 
families  also  have  members  noted  for  beauty;  chickweed 
and  purslane  are  troublesome  weeds  the  world  over,  but  the 
chickweed  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  carnation  pink 
and  our  beautitul,  wild  Indian-pink,  and  purslane  is  a 
member  of  the  Portulaca  family.  The  wild  four-o'clock  and 
the  sand  verbena  are  classed  in  this  group,  but  it  is  not 
easy  to  explain  why.  There  is  one  useful  family  in  this 
group,  the  buckwheat.  The  cultivated  buckwheat  not  only 
furnishes  flour,  but  is  also  a  valuable  honey  plant,  and 
some  kinds  of  our  wild  buckwheat,  or  Eriogonums,  are  also 
useful  to  bee-keepers.  The  Eriogonums  can  defy  drought, 
as  you  remember,  and  so  it  happens  that  in  the  summer 

174 


EXOGENS  OR  DICOTYLEDONS 

months  they  convert  hot  sandy  or  rocky  wastes  into  frag- 
rant bee  pastures. 

The  higher  groups  of  dicotyledons  consist  mainly  of 
plants  with  more  conspicuous  flowers,  that  is,  they  have 
learned  to  get  help  from  insects,  and  the  highest  groups  of 
all  have  united  their  petals  so  as  to  get  the  most  possible 
good  from  their  guests.  The  group  next  above  the  weedy 
group  has  flowers  with  little  or  no  union  of  parts.  Many 
of  those  with  their  parts  all  quite  separate,  belong  to  the 
buttercup  family,  and  you  will  think  the  family  resemblance 
very  slight  when  you  know  that  it  includes,  besides  the 
buttercup,  the  clematis,  meadow-rue,  larkspur,  columbine 
and  peony.  If  you  can  collect  the  fruits  of  this  family,  you 
will  understand  more  about  their  kinship.  The  magnolia  and 
laurel  families,  too,  have  flowers  with  their  parts  not  united. 
Perhaps  you  know  the  laurel,  or  bay  tree,  of  our  canons; 
you  are  likely  to  miss  its  small  greenish  flowers  because 
they  come  so  early  in  the  winter,  but  you  will  remember 
its  beautiful,  dark,  glossy  leaves,  especially  their  spicy  odor 
and  taste,  and  you  will  not  be  surprised  to  learn  that  cinna- 
mon, nutmeg,  mace,  cassia  buds,  camphor  and  sassafras  all 
come  from  plants  nearly  related  to  the  bay-laurel. 

Some  of  the  wild  flowers  noticed  in  Chapter  IX.  belong 
in  this  group;  the  violet,  poppy  and  mustard  and  all  their 
relatives.  How  many  relatives  of  the  mustard  have  you 
found?  Shepherd's  purse  and  pepper  grass,  if  you  have 
kept  a  sharp  lookout  on  wayside  weeds,  and  water  cress 
along  streams,  sweet  alyssuni  in  gardens,  radish,  cabbage 
and  turnip  about  old  vegetable  gardens,  besides  a  goodly 
number  of  wild  flowers,  including  the  wallflower  and  others 
not  showy  enough  to  have  common  names.  This  large  and 
vigorous  family,  then,  contains  some  members  that  seem  to 
us  quite  useless;  others,  the  weeds,  that  are  worse  than  use- 
less; but  some  that  are  ornamental,  and  still  others  decidedly 
useful.  The  sharp,  biting  taste,  which  must  protect  the 

175 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMEb 

plants  from  grazing  animals,  is  agreeable  to  most  people; 
that  is,  we  use  mustard,  water  cress,  radishes  and  horse- 
radish as  relishes.  The  original  wild  cabbage  has  been 
cultivated  into  not  only  various  kinds  of  cabbage,  but  also 
kail,  cauliflower,  Brussels  sprouts,  and  other  garden  vege- 
tables. All  kinds  of  turnips  are  supposed  to  be  cultivated 
forms  of  a  common  weed  known  as  the  smooth-leaved 
mustard. 

One  of  the  highest  families  in  this  group  is  the  malva. 
The  flowers  of  the  common  weed,  malva,  are  easily  missed 
because  they  are  so  small  and  close  to  the  stem,  but  the 
fruits  are  well  known;  the  children  call  them  "cheeses", 
and  like  to  eat  them  because  of  their  peculiar  gummy  or 
mucilaginous  juice.  But  small  flowers  are  by  no  means  the 
rule  in  this  family;  it  includes  the  hollyhock,  hibiscus, 
flowering-maple,  and  many  showy  wild  flowers,  some  of 
them  growing  on  shrubs  or  even  trees.  Find  any  of  these 
you  can,  and  look  for  family  traits;  what  is  always  true  of 
the  stamens  ?  How  many  have  mucilaginous  juice  ?  Have 
you  never  used  the  juice  of  the  hibiscus  flowers  to  polish 
your  shoes  ?  Perhaps  you  are  fond  of  the  vegetable  okra,  or 
gumbo.  Can  you  guess  why  it  belongs  to  the  malva  family? 
The  most  useful  member  of  this  family  is  the  cotton  plant. 
It  is  quite  possible  to  grow  cotton  in  California,  and  you 
may  be  able  to  find  out  many  interesting  things  about  it. 

This  group  of  dicotyledons  contains  also  many  plants 
that  you  are  not  likely  to  meet,  though  they  are  noted  for 
beauty  or  use,  or  have  some  peculiar  interest;  the  water- 
lily,  for  instance,  the  tea  plant,  the  chocolate  tree  and  the 
curious  pitcher  plants  and  sundews,  which  thrive  on  animal 
food.  Interesting  stories  have  been  written  about  them  all. 

The  next  group  of  dicotyledons  contains  families  whose 
kinship  is  not  easily  seen.  The  flowers,  of  course,  count 
most  in  determining  relationship;  their  parts  are  nearly 
always  in  fives,  the  stamens  never  more  than  twice  five;  the 

176 


EXOGENS  OR  DICOTYLEDONS 

flowers  may  be  showy  or  fragrant,  appealing  to  insects,  like 
the  geranium,  orange  and  wild  lilac,  or  they  may  be  small 
and  green,  depending  on  the  wind,  like  the  grape  and  poison 
oak.  Some  of  the  families  consist  only  of  herbs,  others 
contain  shrubs,  vines  and  trees.  You  remember  some  of 
the  plants  that  are  related  to  the  geranium;  flax  is  also 
nearly  related;  perhaps  you  have  seen  its  pretty, blue  flowers, 
and  know  what  use  is  made  of  the  strong  woody  fibers  of 
the  stems.  You  can  think  of  two  or  three  relatives  of  the 
orange.  The  poison  oak  belongs  to  the  Rhus  family,  which 
includes  many  other  California  shrubs,  most  of  them  with 
evergreen  leaves;  some  kinds  are  known  as  sumach,  and 
their  leaves  are  often  very  brilliantly  colored  when  about  to 
perish.  The  cultivated  Virginia  creeper,  a  near  relative  of 
the  grape,  has  also  gorgeous  autumn  coloring.  The  shrubs 
called  buckthorn  are  nearly  related  to  the  California  lilacs, 
and  so  belong  to  this  group;  also  the  pepper  tree  of  our 
streets  and  the  maple,  buckeye  and  horse-chestnut. 

The  next  group  contains  one  of  the  largest  and  strong- 
est of  plant  tamilies,  the  Euphorbia  family,  but  most  of  its 
members  are  tropical.  We  have  introduced  some  of  the 
more  hardy  of  these  foreigners,  the  Poinsettia,  for  instance, 
the  shrub  that  makes  such  a  gorgeous  display  of  scarlet 
about  Christmas  time.  Possibly  you  have  noticed  that  the 
Poinsettia  has  very  milky  juice,  and  that  the  scarlet  part  is 
really  a  whorl  of  leaves  surrounding  a  cluster  of  small, 
simple  flowers.  There  are  a  few  California  Euphorbias. 
One  of  them,  called  rattlesnake  weed,  is  common  in  the 
south;  it  grows  in  round  mats  close  to  the  hard  sun-baked 
earth  and,  like  the  Poinsettia,  it  has  milky  juice  and  flower 
clusters  surrounded  by  bracts,  but  the  bracts,  which  are 
brown,  with  white  margins,  are  very  small,  in  fact  the  whole 
flower  cluster  is  not  much  larger  than  a  pin  head.  The 
turkey-weed,  too,  belongs  to  the  Euphorbia  family,  and  so 
does  the  castor-oil  plant,  but  you  would  hardly  see  why.  A 

12  177 


CALIFORNIA   PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

family  trait  of  the  Euphorbias  is  milky  or  poisonous  juice. 
One  Euphorbia  is  sometimes  cultivated  in  California 
because  gophers  are  supposed  to  be  poisoned  by  eating  it. 
A  large  part  of  the  India-rubber  used  in  the  world  is  made 
from  the  juice  of  South  American  trees  of  this  family. 
Another  South  American  member  of  the  family  is  the 
Manioc,  which,  though  it  has  a  poisonous  juice,  furnishes 
the  tapioca  of  commerce,  and  besides,  is  the  chief  article  of 
food  of  the  natives. 

The  highest  group  of  dicotyledons  with  petals  not 
united,  is  called  Calyciflorse,  because  the  calyx,  or  the  calyx 
and  receptacle,  usually  form  a  cup  about  the  ovary.  When 
the  ovary  is  grown  fast  to  the  cup  or  tube,  it  is  called 
inferior,  because  it  is  below  the  rest  of  the  flower.  This 
group  contains  several  families  that  we  have  already  studied, 
and  some  others  common  in  California.  The  Umbelliferse 
family,  which  we  studied  under  social  flowers,  is  one; 
another  is  the  saxifrage  family,  which  includes  currants  and 
gooseberries.  Do  you  remember  how  early  in  the  winter 
these  saxifrages  sent  out  new  leaves  and  flowers  ?  To  be 
able  to  flourish  with  little  warmth  seems  to  be  a  family 
trait,  and  most  of  the  California  saxifrages  are  found  in 
shaded  canons  or  on  high  mountains. 

The  cactus  family,  another  member  of  this  group, 
knows  how  to  defy  dry  weather.  Think  out  its  devices 
for  doing  this,  and  find  out  for  yourselves,  if  possible,  a 
special  trick  the  flowers  have  for  getting  their  pollen  car- 
ried. The  ice  plant,  and  the  Sedum,  or  live-for-ever,  both 
members  of  this  group,  also  know  how  to  store  water. 

Perhaps  you  remember  a  spring  flower  with  a  very 
slender  inferior  ovary;  Fig.  42,  Chapter  IX,  will  recall 
it.  Have  you  discovered  any  of  its  relatives  ?  Examine 
the  white  or  the  yellow  evening  primrose,  or  the  cultivated 
fuchsia.  During  the  late  spring  and  summer  months, 
there  are  some  very  showy  wild  flowers  that  belong  to  this 

178 


EXOGENS  OR  DICOTYLEDONS 

evening  primrose,  or  fuchsia,  family.  Find  them  if  you  can; 
Fig.  69,  Chapter  XV,  will  help  you.  Try  to  find  out  for 
yourselves,  before  you  read  about  them,  some  of  their  de- 
vices for  pollination. 

There  are  many  interesting  foreign  families  that  belong 
to  this  group,  and  we  can  cultivate  some  of  the  plants  in 
our  climate.  Some  of  these  foreigners  are: — the  passion- 
flower vine  and  begonias  from  tropical  America,  the  crape- 
myrtle  and  pomegranate  from  India,  the  grevillea  and 
Eucalyptus  from  Australia,  guavas  from  Brazil  and  West 
Indies;  also  the  trees  that  produce  cloves  and  allspice, 
growing  only  in  the  tropics,  and  the  Brazil-nut  tree  in 
South  America.  You  can  find  the  flowers  or  fruits  of 
many  of  these;  notice  the  ovaries  especially.  Cloves  are 
dried  flower  buds;  allspice  consists  of  dried  berries.  The 
Brazil-nuts  are,  of  course,  seeds;  do  you  know  how  they 
are  packed  away  in  fruits  that  look  like  cannon  balls  ?  You 
can  sometimes  see  them  at  fruit  or  grocery  stores. 

Two  other  families  of  this  group  are  the  rose  and  the 
pea  families,  whose  members  are  widely  scattered  and  very 
well  known  because  of  their  use  or  beauty.  The  rose 
family  includes,  besides  all  kinds  of  roses,  many  of  our 
cultivated  fruits: — apples,  pears  and  quinces,  which  belong  to 
the  same  branch;  peaches,  plums,  cherries  and  all  the  other 
stone  fruits;  and  strawberries,  blackberries,  raspberries  and 
the  like.  Collect  as  many  of  the  flowers  and  fruits  of  these  as 
you  can,  taking  either  wild  or  single  roses, — double  roses, 
however  beautiful,  are  not  natural.  Now  try  to  make  out 
family  traits.  It  is  easy  to  make  a  general  statement  about 
sepals,  petals  and  stamens, but  there  are  many  kinds  of  pistils. 
One  branch  of  the  family  has  inferior  ovaries;  the  fruits  will 
show  the  withered  remnants  of  the  rest  of  the  flower  above 
the  ovaries  and  the  surrounding  calyx  and  receptacle. 
How  many  ovaries  are  there  in  each  fruit  ?  What  part  of 
the  flower  do  we  eat,  and  what  do  we  throw  away  ?  An- 

179 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

other  branch  has  flowers  with  but  one  ovary,  which  is  quite 
free  from  calyx,  and  the  ovary  walls  become  thick  and 
juicy  as  the  fruits  ripen.  But  many  of  the  rose  family 
have  flowers  with  a  great  number  of  pistils.  We  think  of 
strawberry  pistils  as  seeds  because  they  are  so  tiny,  but  if 
you  look  closely,  you  will  see  the  styles  as  well  as  the 
little,  hard  ovaries.  The  part  of  the  strawberry  flower 
that  we  like  to  eat  is,  evidently,  the  receptacle.  Are 
blackberry  and  raspberry  pistils  and  receptacles  like  those 
of  the  strawberry  ?  Has  the  rose  one  or  many  pistils  ?  Find 
some  rose  fruits,  or  hips,  as  they  are  called.  What  part  of 
the  flower  is  the  soft,  scarlet  tissue  that  the  birds  like  to 
eat  ?  Have  you  thought  out  why  all  these  members  of  the 
rose  family  have  some  part  of  their  fruits  showy  and  well 
flavored  when  the  seeds  are  ripe  ?  Why  should  they  be 
green  in  color  and  disagreeable  to  taste  before  this  ?  Of 
our  native  members  of  this  family,  some  have  edible  fruits. 
We  have  wild  cherries,  wild  plums,  wild  almonds  and  vari- 
ous kinds  of  so-called  berries.  There  are  some  of  this  fam- 
ily that  choose  to  have  the  wind  carry  their  seeds.  Did 
you  ever  see  the  fluffy  fruits  of  the  California  mahogany 
tree  ?  They  are  so  abundant  that  mountain  slopes  covered 
with  these  trees  look  almost  gray  in  the  summer  and 
autumn.  The  greasewood,  too,  whose  plume-like  flower 
clusters  whiten  our  foot-hills  in  early  summer,  has  dry  fruits. 
The  highest  of  all  this  group  is  the  pea  family,  Legumin- 
osae.  We  have  already  noticed  one  branch  of  this  family,  the 
one  having  flowers  with  mechanical  genius.  Naturally  flow- 
ers of  this  sort,  in  adapting  themselves  so  cleverly  to  insects, 
take  on  bright  colors  or  are  fragrant,  so  some  of  our  most  at- 
tractive garden  flowers  belong  to  this  group.  How  many  have 
you  found  ?  Another  branch  of  lyeguminosse  contains  the 
California  Judas  tree,  and  a  third  branch  includes  the  Aca- 
cias. The  Leguminosse  is  one  of  the  useful  families;  some- 
times we  use  the  food  the  plant  has  stored  in  the  seeds ;  you 

180 


EXOGENS  OR  DICOTYLEDONS 

can  think  of  examples  among  cultivated  plants.  On  the 
California  deserts  there  is  a  shrubby  L,eguminosae,  the  mes- 
quite,  whose  seeds  the  Indians  eat.  Sometimes  it  is  the 
foliage  that  is  used  for  food;  the  clovers  and  alfalfa  are  ex- 
amples. Some  Leguminosse  are  shrubs  or  trees  valuable 
for  timber.  Gum  arabic  is  produced  by  some  kinds  of 
Acacia. 

The  flowers  of  I/eguminosae  have  usually  some  of  their 
petals  partly  united.  The  flowers  of  all  the  higher  groups 
of  dicotyledons  have  all  their  petals  united  into  a  tube,  at 
the  base  at  least.  One  of  the  lowest  of  these  groups  is 
called  the  heath  group,  because  the  heath,  or  heather,  of 
Europe  belongs  here.  It  includes  some  very  large  and  in- 
teresting families,  but  the  California  members  live  mostly 
in  the  mountains  or  forests.  Some  of  these  are  the  man- 
zanita,  the  madrone,  the  crimson  snow-plant,  the  azalea 
and  the  rhododendron;  cranberries,  huckleberries  and  the 
like  belong  in  this  group,  also  the  pretty  trailing  arbutus  of 
the  Eastern  States.  To  another  group  belong  the  true 
primrose  that  we  read  about  in  English  books,  the  Chinese 
primrose  and  the  cyclamen  that  we  cultivate  in  pots,  also 
our  own  shooting  star  and  the  sturdy  little  pimpernel. 
Another  group  is  mainly  foreign;  the  ebony  and  persim- 
mon belong  to  it. 

The  next  group  we  have  already  studied.  It  includes 
the  blue-eyes,  Gilia,  forget-me-not,  nightshade  and  morn- 
ing-glory families.  Watch  for  the  late-flowering  members 
of  these  families.  There  are  several  late  Phacelias,  and 
very  pretty  Gilias  are  found  in  the  foot-hills  and  mountains 
during  the  summer  months.  The  dodder  is  in  flower  all 
summer,  and  that  big,  coarse  cousin  of  the  nightshade,  the 
"Jimson"  weed,  unfolds  its  .huge  white  flowers  in  the  sum- 
mer and  autumn. 

The  next  group  of  plants,  too,  we  have  studied,  call- 
ing them  "  plants  of  high  rank."  These  families,  also, 

181 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

send  out  some  of  their  most  brilliant  flowers  during  the 
summer  months.  You  will  find  them  in  the  mountains,  or 
on  shaded  slopes  and  along  streams  in  lower  altitudes. 

In  the  next  group  there  are  some  common  cultivated 
plants,  the  olive,  jasmine  and  lilac,  but  not  many  native 
Californians.  There  are  the  gentians,  which  are  found 
only  in  mountain  meadows,  and  milkweeds,  which  are 
rather  abundant  in  parts  of  Southern  California.  The 
milkweed  flowers  are  not  very  showy,  but  they  have  plenti- 
ful stores  of  honey,  and  the  story  of  their  pollination  is  one 
of  the  most  wonderful  known.  If  you  have  sharp  eyes  and 
can  watch  the  insects  visiting  the  flowers,  you  can  find  out 
part  of  the  story  for  yourselves. 

There  is  another  group  of  about  the  same  rank  that 
has  few  California  members.  It  includes  the  cucumber 
family,  the  melon,  pumpkin  and  the  like,  belonging  here, 
also  our  wild  cucumber  vine  and  the  chilicothe. 

The  highest  group  of  all  is  called  Aggregate,  which 
means  that  the  flowers  are  crowded  together;  and  the  high- 
est family  in  this  group,  and  hence  the  highest  of  all  plant 
families,  is  the  social  family  Composite,  which  we  have 
already  discussed.  Does  it  seem  strange  to  you  that  this 
family  with  its  ten  thousand  species,  has  not  one  that  is 
of  any  marked  use  to  man  ?  For  this  reason  it  receives 
little  assistance  from  him.  In  fact  some  species,  like  the 
thistle  and  cocklebur,  flourish  in  spite  of  constant  war 
against  them.  Of  course  this  means  that  this  is  the 
largest  and  strongest  of  families,  simply  because  its  mem- 
bers have  learned  so  well  to  take  care  of  themselves. 


182 


SOME  SUMMER  FLOWERS 


CHAPTER  XV. 


sone  sunMER  FLOWERS. 

There  are  some  plants  that,  all  through  the  winter 
rains  and  spring  sunshine,  refuse  to  send  out  their  flowers; 
but  after  the  rains  are  over,  and  when  the  days  are  so  long 
that  the  sun  drinks  up  much  of  the  moisture  left  in  the  soil, 
they  suddenly  burst  into  bloom.  Should  you  not  think 
they  would  pay  dearly  for  their  tardiness  ?  But  they  seem 
to  have  reasoned  in  somewhat  this  way  : — After  the  rains 
are  over  the  pollen  will  be  in  less  danger,  and  in  the  long 
sunny  days  and  warm  nights,  there  will  be  more  insects 
or  hummingbirds  to  carry  it  ;  and,  best  of  all,  when  the 
crowds  of  spring  flowers  are  gone,  the  late  flowers  will  have 
all  these  guests  to  themselves  ;  so  it  pays  to  store  up  food 
and  moisture  to  be  used  later  on. 

And  what  a  long  time  some  of  these  plants  have  been 
working  and  hoarding !  Do  you  remember  how  early  last 
autumn  the  soap-root  sent  up  its  pretty  crinkled  leaves  ? 
All  through  the  rainy  season  the  busy  leaves  make  food 
and  send  it  down  to  the  bulb  storehouse,  until  finally  the 
air  and  soil  become  so  dry  that  they  can  work  no  longer. 
But  after  the  leaves  have  quite  disappeared,  there  shoots 
up  a  slender  branching  flower  stalk,  two  or  three  or  some- 
times five  or  six  feet  high.  This  stalk  and  the  unopened 
buds  are  so  slender  and  gray  that  during  the  day  there  seems 
to  be  but  the  ghost  of  a  plant,  but  watch  on  some  June  or 
July  afternoon,  about  half-past  four  o'clock,  and  you  will 

183 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

see  several  slender  white  lilies  burst  out  on  every  branch. 
As  the  darkness  comes  on ,  they  are  like  white  stars ;  they 
are  fragrant  and  full  of  honey,  and  are  sure  to  attract  their 
chosen  guests,  the  night  moths. 

There  are  larkspurs,  too,  that  provide  underground 
stores  for  late  flowers  and  fruits.  In  the  foot-hills  of  South- 
ern California  there  are  areas  fairly  aflame  with  scarlet  lark- 
spur. The  gorgeous  flower  clusters  are  nearly  as  tall  as  a 
man,  and  the  oddly  shaped  flowers  have,  as  you  might 
guess,  a  story  to  tell.  If  you  are  unable  to  get  the  scarlet 
flowers,  you  can  read  nearly  the  same  story  from  other  lark- 
spurs, wild  or  cultivated.  The  one  in  the  picture  is  a  native 
blue  kind  that  blooms  in  May  or  June.  The  five  outer 
parts  of  the  flower  are,  of  course,  sepals;  within  are  the 
four,  small  petals.  Both  sepals  and  petals  contribute  color, 
but  they  do  more  than  this  ;  in  the  blue  larkspurs,  the 
three  lower  sepals  form  a  platform,  and  in  all  species  the 
two  lower  petals  form  a  roof  over  the  stamens.  The  two 
upper  petals  are  usually  of  a  color  different  from  the  others, 
and  serve  as  honey  guides. 

Now  see  how  well  the  larkspur  guards  its  honey.  The 
two  upper  sepals  are  prolonged  to  form  a  deep,  slender  cup, 
called  a  spur,  whose  tissue  is  sometimes  very  tough  and 
wrinkled.  Really  this  spur,  made  of  sepals,  is  only  a 
sheath,  or  covering;  the  real  cup  that  holds  the  honey  is 
within  it,  and  is  formed  from  the  two  upper  petals  pro- 
longed and  curiously  fitted  together.  And  the  larkspur 
does  well  to  provide  these  thick  and  double  walls  ;  for,  as 
we  saw  in  the  case  of  the  Pentstemons,  there  are  thieving 
insects  that  do  not  hesitate  to  bite  through  the  flowers  to 
steal  honey,  if  they  can  get  it  in  no  easier  way.  Now  the 
larkspurs  invite  only  guests  with  long  tongues.  The  blue 
larkspur  offers  honey  to  large  bees,  and  it  is  supposed  that 
the  flowers  have  attained  their  blue  color  because  that 
is  the  color  the  bees  choose.  The  scarlet  larkspur  keeps  its 

184 


Fig.  65.     LARKSPUR— Delphinium  Tarryi 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

honey  quite  too  deep  for  bees,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  its 
gorgeous  color  attracts  the  most  desirable  of  all  guests,  the 
humming  birds.  Now  look  at  the  stamens.  Each  flower 
has  many  of  them,  but  only  a  few  are  shedding  pollen  at 
any  given  time  ;  note  just  where  these  stand  and  imagine 
what  happens  when  the  bee,  resting  on  the  platform,  or  the 
bird,  rising  from  below,  reaches  over  to  get  the  honey. 
For  mature  stigmas,  look  in  the  oldest  flowers.  Where  do 
they  stand  ?  It  is  easy  to  see  what  results  to  these  older 
flowers  every  time  they  are  visited  by  guests  from  the 
younger  ones. 

There  are  summer  flowers,  less  showy  than  the  lark- 
spurs, that  are  able  to  trust  entirely  to  their  guests  for  pol- 
lination. Probably  the  most  interesting  of  all  these  is  the 
milkweed.  The  milkweed  in  the  picture  is  common  in 
Southern  California.  Its  very  milky  juice,  also  supposed  to 
be  poisonous,  and  its  extreme  woolliness,  protect  it  well 
from  grazing  animals  and  from  drought.  It  flourishes  in 
many  waste  places,  sometimes  to  the  annoyance  of  bee- 
keepers, as  we  shall  see.  The  flowers  of  this  milkweed  are 
massed  in  rather  large  clusters,  but  they  are  not  highly 
colored.  Unless  you  look  closely,  you  will  not  find  the 
sepals  at  all,  and  the  whitish  petals  turn  back  close  to  the 
stem,  as  if  determined  to  be  of  no  use  to  guests.  But  there 
are  five  hood-like  cups  for  honey,  which  are  more  or  less 
deeply  rose  tinted  ;  they  are  conspicuous,  and  have  a  goodly 
amount  of  honey. 

The  stamens  and  pistils  are  very  queer  indeed,  but  it 
pays  to  make  them  out.  Tear  away  sepals,  petals  and 
honey  cups.  What  is  left  looks  like  No.  2  in  the  picture, 
but  is  much  smaller.  Now  explore  this  with  a  pin,  and  you 
will  soon  find  that  there  are  five  narrow  openings,  or  slits, 
with  stiff,  projecting  edges.  When  a  bee  or  a  fly  or  a  but- 
terfly comes  for  milkweed  honey  he  clings  to  this  central 
part  of  the  flower,  since  he  cannot  alight  on  the  petals. 

186 


SOMEISUMMER  FLOWERS 

Do  you  not  see  how  easily  one  of  the  insect's  legs  may  be 
caught  in  a  slit?  As  he  tries  to  rise  and  free  himself,  the 
leg  will  be  brought  against  the  roof  of  the  little  chamber 
into  which  it  has  slipped,  and  strangely  enough  this  roof  is 
the  stigma.  One  might  easily  fail  to  make  out  just  what  is 
stigma  in  this  case,  but  the  ovaries  and  styles  of  the  two 
little  bottle-shaped  pistils  within  the  chamber  are  easily 
seen  ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  upper  part  of  the  cham- 
ber is  moist  and  ready  to  receive  pollen.  If,  then,  the 
insect's  leg  has  pollen  on  it,  the  pollen  will  be  landed  on  the 
stigma. 

But  where  does  the  flower  keep  its  pollen  ?  Notice  a 
little  black  dot  above  each  slit.  As  the  insect's  leg  is 
pulled  up  and  out,  it  is  drawn  under  this  dot.  Put  a  pin 
under  it  and  lift  gently.  A  pin  is  much  smoother  than  an 
insect's  leg,  but  it  is  likely  to  pull  out  a  pair  of  yellow  bags 
fastened  to  this  dot.  These  bags,  No.  4,  Fig.  66,  are 
masses  of  pollen,  and  if  the  insect  that  pulls  them  out  on 
his  leg  is  more  hungry  than  cautious,  he  will  visit  other 
flowers,  and  he  is  likely  to  leave  the  pollen  bags  against  a 
stigma  when  the  same  leg  gets  caught  again.  A  single 
bag  consists  of  enough  pollen  grains  to  fertilize  many  seeds. 
Of  course  the  bee  may  not  get  the  same  leg  caught  again, 
or  the  pollen  bags  may  not  be  broken  off.  If  you  catch 
bees  that  are  visiting  milkweed  flowers,  and  with  a  little 
patience  you  can,  you  are  almost  sure  to  find  one  or  more 
pairs  of  pollen  masses  on  their  legs.  Sometimes  the  bees 
are  too  weak  to  withdraw  their  legs,  and  so  are  caught,  and 
die  on  the  flowers,  and  very  often  they  accumulate  so  many 
of  the  masses  that  they  are  disabled  and  die ;  so  the  bee- 
keepers do  not  like  to  have  the  milkweed  in  bee-pastures. 

Now,  with  the  pollen  so  rudely  snatched  from  its 
guests,  the  ugly  milkweed  makes  the  daintiest  seeds  you 
can  find;  so  exquisite  they  are,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
sketch  them  worthily.  But  you  can  keep  watch  of  the 

187 


Fig.  66.     MILKWEED— ^sclepias  eriocarpa. 

1.     Flower  enlarged.  2.     Column  of  anthers  and  pistils.  3.    Column  with 

face  of  one  anther  removed.  4.    Pair  of  pollen-masses. 


SOME  SUMMER  FLOWERS 

pods.  Toward  autumn,  when  the  seeds  ripen,  the  pods 
burst  open,  and  you  see  at  first  hundreds  of  scale-like  seeds 
beautifully  arranged  along  a  silken,  white  centre;  each 
seed  rises,  expands,  dries  its  wings  like  a  butterfly  coming 
from  its  cocoon,  and  finally  .  floats  off  on  probably  the 
softest,  downiest  ball  of  fluff  in  nature. 

It  is  the  summer  months  that  the  cactus  family,  too, 
chooses  for  flowering  ;  the  night-blooming  cereus  of  our 
gardens  for  instance,  or  the  strange,  weird  cacti  we  bring 
from  the  deserts  to  our  public  parks,  or  the  prickly  pear, 
or  tuna  cactus,  so  common  in  Southern  California  on  dry  hill- 
sides and  sandy  wastes.  We  have  noticed  before  how  the 
cactus  stores  both  food  and  moisture  above  ground,  and 
how  it  defends  these  stores  with  its  dreaded  spines  and 
prickles.  Some  of  us  have  seen  the  savage  cactus  hedges 
planted  by  the  old  mission  fathers  as  a  defense  against 
hostile  Indians. 

Naturally,  we  expect  such  able  plants  to  produce 
remarkable  flowers ;  and  so  they  do.  The  flower  of  the 
night-blooming  cereus  becomes  a  miracle  of  beauty,  size 
and  fragrance,  in  order  to  court  the  attention  of  some  huge 
Mexican  night  moth,  and  doubtless  every  other  beautiful 
cactus  flower  we  cultivate,  has,  in  its  native  land,  a  story  of 
its  own.  At  any  rate,  our  tuna  cactus  flowers  repay  obser- 
vation. They  open  only  during  the  brightest  hours  of  the 
day,  deeming  it  not  worth  while  to  proffer  hospitality  unless 
there  are  sure  to  be  crowds  of  guests.  They  serve  a  very 
thin  film  of  honey  deep  down  in  the  corolla,  but  they  offer 
so  much  pollen  that  guests  seem  never  to  look  for  honey. 
Now  this  clever  tuna  has  a  plan  for  compelling  the  guests 
to  carry  much  more  pollen  than  they  take  for  their  own 
use.  To  discover  this  trick,  you  should  take  a  newly- 
opened  flower.  The  stamens  lie  back  against  the  petals, 
but  if  you  touch  the  filaments,  they  immediately  sweep 
over  to  the  centre,  so  that  a  guest  would  be  buried 

189 


Fig.  67.     TUNA  CACTUS— Opuntia  Lindheimeri,  var.  occidentalis. 

1.     Flower  before  insect's  visit.  2.    After  visit.  3.    Branch  iti  spiinglirae 

showing  small  leaves. 


SOME  SUMMER  FLOWERS 

beneath  the  anthers.  In  a  few  minutes  they  are  back  in 
place  ready  to  bury  the  next  guest ;  if  guests  come  before 
the  stamens  are  back  in  place  they  must  burrow  among  the 
anthers,  so  in  any  case  the  guests  get  thoroughly  covered 
with  pollen.  Usually  there  are  throngs  of  guests,  especially 
large  woolly  bees  that  need  pollen  for  their  babies  ;  and 
such  dusty  bees  as  they  are  when  they  leave  the  flower, 
perhaps  hustled  out  by  newcomers! 

Chaparral  is  a  name  Californians  give  to  the  several 
kinds  of  hardy  shrubs  that  form  dense  thickets  on  the  dry, 
rocky  soil  of  our  hills  and  mountains.  Much  of  this 
chaparral  chooses  summer  months  for  flowering.  Some  of 
the  shrubby  sages  of  Southern  California  are  still  in  abun- 
dant flower  in  June  and  July.  Perhaps  the  plant  most 
commonly  called  chaparral  is  the  chamisal,  or  grease- wood. 
It  is  a  hardy,  woody, little  shrub,  with  many  small,  evergreen 
leaves  that  are  like  spines.  It  sends  out  its  large  plume- 
like  clusters  of  tiny  white  flowers  throughout  the  summer 
months,  and  as  its  flowers  have  no  naughty  tricks,  like  the 
milkweed,  they  and  the  bees  are  of  the  greatest  use  to  each 
other.  In  fact  the  chamisal  is  counted  in  with  the  "bee- 
pasture  "  plants. 

One  of  the  Hriogonums,  or  wild  buckwheats,  is  shrubby 
enough  to  be  classed  as  chaparral.  You  are  sure  to  find  it 
on  southern  hills.  It  has  more  leaves  and  larger  flower 
clusters  than  most  Eriogonums.  The  leaves,  which  grow 
in  clusters,  are  small,  hard,  and  deep  green  above  ;  the 
flowers  are  first  white,  then  rose-colored,  and  finally  golden 
brown.  This  Hriogonum,  too,  is  on  the  best  of  terms  with 
the  bees.  Its  flowers  furnish  honey  and  pollen,  and  then 
trust  the  bees  to  cross  pollinate  them,  for,  unlike  most  very 
small  flowers,  they  cannot  pollinate  themselves.  Find  out 
why. 

Now  this  Eriogonum  has  a  very  troublesome  plant 
enemy.  The  picture,  Fig.  68,  shows  a  twig  attacked  by 

191 


Fig.  68.     Dodder  on  Eriogonum  fasciculaium. 


SOME  SUMMER  FLOWERS 

this  enemy.  The  Eriogonum  has  been  able,  as  you  see,  to 
send  out  only  a  small  stunted  flower  cluster,  but  the  other 
plant  is  in  full  flower  ;  in  fact  it  seems  to  consist  only  of 
flowers  and  slender  stems.  The  stems  are  bright  yellow  or 
orange,  so  the  plant  is  often  called  gold-thread,  but  its  best- 
known  common  name  is  dodder.  Perhaps  you  have  heard 
it  called  love-vine,  but  it  must  have  been  an  ill-natured  per- 
son who  gave  it  this  name,  for  it  is  really  a  plant  of  the  very 
worst  character.  Try  to  unwind  it  from  its  victim,  and  you 
will  see  that  the  little  projections  that  look  like  caterpillar's 
legs  are  really  suckers  that  have  pierced  down  into  the 
tissue  of  the  host  plant,  and  are  absorbing  the  food  that  this 
plant  has  made,  just  as  the  root-hairs  of  honest  plants  absorb 
from  the  soil  their  material  for  food-making.  So  you  can 
think  why  this  plant  has  no  ordinary  roots  and  leaves  and 
no  green  color.  The  dodder  attacks  many  other  plants 
besides  this  Eriogonum,  as  you  probably  know  ;  it  some- 
times nearly  destroys  fields  of  alfalfa. 

Now  this  thieving  dodder  really  belongs  to  a  generally 
honest  family  of  high  rank,  to  the  same  family  as  the  morn- 
ing-glory, as  you  can  see  if  you  compare  the  parts  of  the 
flowers.  The  little  flowers  of  the  dodder  make  friends 
with  the  bees,  and  mature  many  tiny  seeds,  which  are  scat- 
tered in  an  interesting  way.  And  how  do  you  suppose  the 
dodder  seedlings  get  a  start  in  the  world  ?  The  seeds  ger- 
minate on  the  moist  ground,  but  later  than  most  other 
seeds,  so  that  there  are  young  plants  and  new  shoots  all 
about  them  before  they  sprout  at  all.  The  baby  plant  in 
the  dodder  seed,  like  the  older  plant,  has  neither  true  leaves 
nor  root;  it  is  simply  a  little  stem.  One  end  of  the  tiny 
stem,  as  it  leaves  the  seed  coat,  glues  itself  to  the  soil,  but 
it  never  sends  down  roots,. nor  does  it  absorb  moisture  from 
the  soil.  The  free  end  goes  slowly  sweeping  round  and 
round,  like  the  tips  of  morning-glory  stems,  seeking  some- 
thing to  twine  about.  If  it  does  not  succeed  before  it  has 
13  193 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

used  up  all  the  seed  food,  it  must  fall  to  the  earth,  for  it 
cannot  feed  itself.  But  this  little,  yellow,  vagabond  baby 
can  do  without  food  for  several  weeks,  and  it  lies  on  the 
ground  and  waits  for  some  green  shoot  to  grow  against  it; 
it  seizes  this,  coils  about  it,  sends  down  suckers  into  it,  and 
soon  becomes  a  flourishing  plant. 

On  the  shaded  slopes  of  hills,  very  close  to  our  valley 
towns,  are  many  bright  summer  flowers  that  most  people 
know  nothing  about,  perhaps  because  they  are  afraid  of 
summer  dust.  For  instance,  within  a  few  minutes'  walk 
from  I/os  Angeles  street  cars,  one  can  gather  in  June  a 
few  late  Mariposas,  quantities  of  rose-colored  Godetias,  as 
handsome  as  Mariposas,  brilliant  scarlet  pinks,  the  climb- 
ing Pentstemon  with  its  vivid,  trumpet-shaped  flowers,  and 
the  first  flowers  of  the  scarlet  wild  fuchsia,  with  numbers  of 
other,  less  showy  flowers. 

The  Godetia,  pictured  in  Fig.  69,  belongs  to  the  even- 
ing primrose  family.  It  has  not  the  appearance  of  an  ex- 
clusive flower,  but  perhaps  you  have  discovered  that  it 
keeps  its  honey  beyond  the  reach  of  short  tongues,  and 
that  its  style  carries  the  stigma  up  for  pollination  by  bees 
or  butterflies  after  its  own  pollen  is  shed.  The  Clarkia  is 
another  member  of  the  evening  primrose  family.  It  has 
curious,  beautiful  flowers  in  shades  of  purple,  crimson  and 
rose,  and  you  will  surely  want  to  study  them  if  the  plant 
grows  near  you.  The  Indian  pink  pictured  in  Fig.  70,  al- 
though a  member  of  a  humble  family,  has  attained  great 
social  success,  for  it  is  a  favorite  of  the  humming  birds.  Its 
petals  are  not  united,  but  the  sepals  form  a  deep,  slender 
tube  about  them,  so  that  all  humble  guests  are  excluded. 
Can  you  not  read  the  story  of  its  pollination  from  the  pic- 
ture? The  lower  flower  is  newly  opened,  and  the  anthers 
are  shedding  pollen;  the  upper  flower  is  older,  the  stamens 
are  withered,  and  the  three  stigmas  are  matured. 

If  you  have  been  watching  the  Pentstemon  pictured  in 

194 


SOME  SUMMER  FLOWERS 


Fig.  69. 
Godetia  ^Bottce  and  Clarkia  elcgans. 


Fig.  70. 
INDIAN  PINK— Silene  laciniata. 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR 


.  71,  you  have  learned  some  interesting  things  about 
plants  that  climb  by  weaving,  as  it  is  called.  The  flowers, 
like  so  many  other  summer  flowers  in  California,  are  bright 
red.  Review  the  story  of  the  pollination  of  the  Pentste- 
mons  in  Chapter  XI,  and  find  out  if  this  Pentstemon  has  a 
similar  story.  Do  you  think  bees  can  get  its  honey? 

The  scarlet  wild  fuchsia,  Fig.  15,  Chapter  III,  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  of  Western  wild  flowers.  From 
Northern  to  Southern  California,  and  from  the  coast  to  the 
high  mountains,  it  lavishes  its  beauty  and  brightness.  In 
the  southern  valleys,  its  leaves  are  small  and  gray,  and  can 


Fig.  71.     CLIMBING 


—  Pentstemon  cordifolius. 


resist  the  drought;  in  the  north  and  in  the  mountains,  they 
are  green  and  more  luxuriant;  in  both  cases  the  foliage  is  a 
fitting  background  for  the  brilliant  flowers.  In  the  Eastern 
States,  this  fuchsia  is  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  is  called 
the  humming  bird's  trumpet.  You  can  see  for  yourselves 
that  it  is  a  humming  bird's  flower. 

Thus  far,  we  have  been  considering  summer  flowers, 
not  summer  plants,  for  these  plants  have  been  active 
throughout  the  rainy  season.  But  California  has  a  goodly 
number  of  really  summer  plants,  plants  that  do  not  begin 
their  growth  from  seed  or  underground  stem,  till  after  the 
rainy  season  ;  and  so  it  happens  that  they  have  at  their  disposal 

196 


SOME  SUMMER  FLOWERS 

a  great  amount  of  soil  left  vacant  by  the  death  or  dormant 
state  of  winter  and  spring  vegetation.  For  instance,  in 
Southern  California  hundreds  of  acres  of  grain  land  are 
in  summer  taken  possession  of  by  such  hardy  plants  as 
blue-curls,  turkey-weed  and  various  kinds  of  tar-weed. 
This  group  of  plants  we  have  already  studied  as  ( '  plants 
that  know  how  to  meet  hard  times,"  but  during  the  mid- 
summer you  may  have  opportunities  to  study  their  flowers 
more  fully.  Many  of  the  plants  belong  to  the  highest  of 
plant  families,  the  Composite,  and  their  "social  flowers" 
have  the  usual  family  advantages.  There  are  also  plants 
belonging  to  smaller  families,  that  have  excellent  devices 
for  pollination.  The  blue-curls,  pictured  in  Fig.  15,  has, 
perhaps,  the  most  original  trick  of  all.  Pull  off  one  of  the 
corollas,  and  notice  how  its  slender  tube  is  bent  back  on 
itself.  It  would  seem  impossible  for  any  guest  to  get 
around  this  troublesome  corner;  but  watch  a  large  bee  set- 
tle on  the  lower  lip  of  the  flower;  the  bee's  weight 
straightens  the  tube  and  at  the  same  time  brings  the  an- 
thers and  .stigmas  against  his  back.  In  younger  flowers 
the  anthers  are  covered  with  pollen,  and  in  older  ones  the 
stigmas  are  mature. 

For  those  who  can  spend  the  summer  in  our  California 
mountains,  there  is  another  world  of  flowers,  for  the  plants 
of  the  higher  mountains  have  wakened  from  their  winter 
sleep,  and  will  have  a  good  supply  of  moisture  all  summer, 
since  there  are  melting  snows,  summer  showers,  springs 
and  streams.  In  the  mountains  of  Southern  California 
even  more  than  in  the  valleys,  red  is  a  prominent  color 
among  summer  flowers.  As  one  winds  up  the  mountain 
trails,  at  first  familiar,  scarlet,  mountain  posies  flash  out 
from  the  greener  slopes,  the  larkspur,  painted  cup,  Indian 
pink,  climbing  Pentstemon,  wild  fuchsia,  and,  along 
streams,  the  scarlet  Mimulus.  Farther  on,  along  the 
streams  the  elegant  columbine  lifts  its  scarlet  clusters 

197 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

above  the  bracken;  moist  slopes  are  covered  with  another 
kind  of  painted  cup,  and  other  kinds  of  scarlet  Pentste- 
mon  appear  ;  one  kind  is  a  vigorous  shrub,  other  kinds 
grow  in  clumps  sometimes  an  acre  in  extent,  and  over 
these  brilliant  patches  the  humming  birds  poise  or  dart 
about  at  their  graceful  antics;  for  of  course  it  is  the  hum- 
ming birds  that  make  these  gorgeous  flowers  possible. 

Of  all  mountain  plants  with  red  flowers,  the  snow 
plant  is  the  most  unique.  Not  the  flower  only,  but  stem 
and  scale-like  leaves  are  deep  crimson.  There  is  no  trace 
of  green,  for,  like  many  other  plants  growing  in  dim  for- 
ests, this  does  not  attempt  to  make  its  own  food,  but  lives 
on  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil.  It  is  rarely,  if  ever,  true 
that  these  flowers  push  up  through  the  snow,  as  some 
alpine  flowers  do,  but  they  come  early  along  the  edges  of 
the  melting  snow  drifts.  This  is  because  the  shoots  were 
formed  below  ground  the  summer  before,  and  have  been 
kept  warm  by  the  snow  blanket.  The  flower  clusters  last 
a  long  time;  you  may  find  them  in  August.  Their  bril- 
liant color,  of  course,  appeals  to  the  humming  birds,  but 
they  share  the  honey  with  the  bees. 

The  bees  have  mountain  flowers  of  their  own.  There 
are  acres  of  blue  gilias  for  honey,  and  acres  more  of  blue 
lupines  for  pollen.  Indeed  nearly  all  the  wild  flowers  you 
have  learned  to  know  in  the  valley  have  mountain  cousins, 
many  of  them  in  charming  mountain  dress.  There  are 
mountain  buttercups,  violets,  shooting  stars,  primroses  and 
so  on  through  the  list.  Besides,  there  are  lovely  flowers 
peculiar  to  the  mountains,  such  as  gentians,  saxifrages,  and 
many  kinds  of  lilies.  In  fact,  if  you  have  learned  to  see 
and  to  know  the  plants  about  you  at  home,  a  mountain 
journey  will  give  you  double  the  pleasure  you  would  get 
without  an  interest  in  plants. 

But  you  need  not  go  to  the  mountains  to  find  inter- 
esting summer  flowers  and  plants.  See  how  the  plants 

198 


SOME  SUMMER  FLOWERS 

you  already  know  behave  in  summer.  Watch  cultivated 
plants,  especially  those  that  climb;  whole  books  have  been 
written  on  the  ways  of  climbing  plants.  If  you  go  to  the 
sea,  notice  how  the  beach  plants  protect  themselves  from 
the  glaring  light  and  the  intense  heat  of  the  sand;  how 
some  of  them  store  water;  by  what  devices  they  avail  them- 
selves of  fog  and  dew;  watch  their  flowers  and  their  guests, 
and  so  on.  At  least,  you  can  watch  the  wayside  weeds, 
and  there  is  much  of  interest  to  learn  from  them,  as  we 
shall  see  in  the  next  chapter. 


199 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

WEEDS. 

What  is  a  weed  ?  An  ugly  plant,  or  a  troublesome 
plant,  perhaps  you  will  say.  But  not  all  of  our  weeds  are 
ugly.  Sometimes,  and  in  some  places,  our  poppy  and  even 
one  kind  of  Mariposa  lily  become  troublesome  weeds.  Some 
weeds  are  only  cultivated  plants  relapsed  into  a  natural 
condition  ;  the  wild  turnip,  which  we  call  mustard,  and  the 
wild  celery  and  radish  for  instance.  There  are  plants  con- 
sidered weeds  in  California,  that  are  carefully  cultivated  in 
older  countries  ;  the  mustard  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and 
the  sunflower  in  Russia,  are  paying  crops.  The  weedy- 
looking  dock,  called  canaigre,  is  very  valuable  for  tanning 
leather,  and  we  are  trying  to  learn  to  make  use  of  it.  There 
are  still  other  plants  that  are  treated  as  weeds  when  they 
occur  in  gardens  or  orchards,  but  are  encouraged  on  pasture 
lands,  such  as  the  bur-clover  and  the  filaree. 

So  the  best  definition  seems  to  be,  "A  weed  is  a  plant 
out  of  place." 

To  realize  the  progress  of  weeds  in  California,  one 
must  have  some  idea  of  the  vegetation  before  the  coming  of 
the  farmer  and  the  shepherd.  John  Muir,  in  a  charming 
chapter  on  "Bee-Pastures,"  says:  "The  great  central 
plain  of  California  during  the  months  of  March,  April  and 
May,  was  one  smooth,  continuous  bed  of  honey  bloom,  so 
marvelously  rich  that  in  walking  from  one  end  of  it  to  the 
other,  a  distance  of  more  than  four  hundred  miles,  your  foot 
would  press  about  a  hundred  flowers  at  every  step.  Mints, 
Gilias,  Nemophilse,  Castilleias  and  innumerable  Composite 

200 


WEEDS 

were  so  crowded  that,  had  ninety-nine  per  cent  of  them 
been  taken  away,  the  plain  would  still  have  seemed  to  any 
but  Californians  extravagantly  flowery."  There  are  resi- 
dents of  Los  Angeles,  by  no  means  aged,  who  remem- 
ber when  the  land  now  occupied  by  the  city  of  Pasadena 
and  other  towns,  was  in  spring  time  one  vivid  flower  gar- 
den, "like  a  Persian  carpet,"  they  sometimes  tell  us.  Even 
to-day  we  can  see  the  same  thing  by  going  to  the  foot-hill 
or  so-called  desert  regions,  that  are  still  uncultivated,  pro- 
vided the  sheep,  "those  hoofed  locusts,"  as  Muir  calls 
them,  have  not  been  before  us. 

A  large  part  of  the  valley  land  to-day  is  occupied  by 
grain,  fruit  and  garden  plants;  but  there  are  pasture  lands 
that  are  practically  uncultivated,  waste  lands  in  and  about 
towns,  and  always  the  untilled  waysides.  Should  we  not 
expect  to  find  our  own  wild  flowers  in  these  places  ?  And 
do  not  our  native  plants  dispute  with  cultivated  plants  for 
the  possession  of  the  soil,  in  this  case  becoming  weeds  ? 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  most  California  children,  even  city 
children,  are  still  able  to  find  quantities  of  our  favorite 
wild-flowers,  but  sometimes  they  must  seek  them  in  remote 
nooks.  The  spring  flowers  are  rarely  common  in  wastes 
and  along  waysides,  except  in  recently  settled  regions,  and 
it  is  only  here  and  there  throughout  the  state,  that  native 
plants  trouble  growing  crops.  Some  of  these  native  spring- 
time weeds  are,  the  poppy,  the  yellow  heliotrope,  morning- 
glory,  Calandrinia,  owl's  clover,  sand-lupines,  chilicothe, 
poison  oak,  bracken  fern  and  cactus.  Very  possibly  you 
have  never  seen  any  of  these  become  troublesome.  But  in 
summer  time  all  over  the  state,  after  the  grain  has  ripened, 
there  are  native  plants  that  take  possession  of  the  soil ; 
some  of  these  are  the  tar-weed,  turkey-weed,  sunflower, 
and  blue-curls.  These  plants  may  be  disagreeable  and 
harmful  in  some  ways,  but  they  rarely  come  early  enough 
to  injure  the  grain. 

201 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

Really  the  most  troublesome  weeds  of  California  are 
not  native  plants  at  all.  The  plants  that  occupy  the  wastes 
and  waysides  in  towns,  and  are  invading  cultivated  land 
everywhere,  the  malva,  filaree,  bur-clover,  mustard,  fox- 
tail, wild  oats,  shepherd's  purse,  chickweed,  Bermuda  grass 
sow-thistle,  pig-weeds,  cockle-bur,  hoarhound,  dock, 
Spanish  needle,  fennel,  most  tumble  weeds  and  their  like, — 
this  conquering  host  is  a  host  of  foreigners.  Most  of  them 
have  come  here,  more  or  less  directly,  from  Europe,  where 
they  have  been  successful  weeds  for  centuries.  It  is 
believed  that  centuries  further  back  many  of  these  same 
vigorous  weeds  were  maintaining  themselves  against  culti- 
vation in  the  older  countries  of  Asia.  That  is,  as  civiliza- 
tion has  advanced  from  Eastern  to  Western  countries,  these 
weeds  have  always  pursued  cultivated  plants.  The  Indians 
in  the  early  days  of  American  history,  called  one  common 
weed,  the  plantain,  the  "white  man's  foot,"  because  it 
appeared  wherever  the  white  settlers  went.  This  particu- 
lar weed  does  not  thrive  in  California,  but  there  are  weed- 
travelers  that  can  make  themselves  at  home  almost  any- 
where ;  the  shepherd's  purse,  chickweed  and  pimpernel 
are  examples.  An  English  botanist  once  found  shepherd's 
purse  flourishing  as  a  weed  on  a  small  island  in  the  Antarctic 
Ocean.  The  plants  were  especially  abundant  about  a 
sailor's  grave,  so  they  probably  sprang  from  a  seed  that 
had  clung  to  the  spade  used  in  digging  the  grave. 

So  it  often  happens  that  by  the  merest  accident  weeds 
become  colonists  in  new  countries,  but  they  may  be  said 
also  to  have  regular  routes  of  travel.  Often  they  come  as 
stowaways  in  ships,  especially  in  soil  used  for  ballast, 
lyike  tramps  they  steal  rides  on  trains,  their  seeds  hidden 
in  grain,  or  clinging  to  imported  vegetables,  or  to  live 
stock.  Having  once  obtained  a  foothold  in  a  congenial 
new  country,  they  spread  with  marvelous  rapidity.  Bur- 
roughs says,  ""They  walk,  they  fly,  they  swim;  they  go 

202 


WEEDS 

underground  and  they  go  above,  across  lots  and  by  the 
highway.  But  like  other  tramps  they  find  it  safest  by 
highways.  In  the  fields  they  are  intercepted  and  cut  off, 
but  on  the  public  road  every  boy,  every  passing  herd  of 
sheep  or  cows,  gives  them  a  lift;"  all  of  which  we  shall  find 
literally  true  as  we  study  individual  weeds. 

Ivet  us  begin  with  our  earliest  weeds.  You  remember 
how  quickly  after  the  first  rains,  the  malva,  bur-clover  and 
filaree  seedlings  appeared.  The  malva  was  perhaps  the 
earliest,  and  these  plucky  little  plants  are  rarely  discouraged 
by  the  droughts  that  often  follow  first  rains.  In  the  worst 
of  seasons,  they  are  able  to  mature  an  abundance  of  the 
little  fruits  that  you  call  "  cheeses,"  and  every  section  of 
the  cheese  contains  a  seed  that  is  almost  sure  to  germinate. 
The  seeds  are  small  and  are  blown  about  far  and  wide  with 
the  wayside  dust,  or  are  carried  in  mud  that  clings  to 
wheels  or  feet.  Cattle  rarely  eat  the  plants  if  other  food  is 
available,  so  the  malva  abounds  in  waste  places  and  is 
always  straying  into  gardens  and  orchards. 

Bur-clover  and  filaree  cover  thousands  of  acres  of 
waste  and  pasture  land  in  California.  The  foliage  of  the 
bur-clover  is  bitter,  and  stock  choose  other  food  first ;  but 
if  some  shoots  are  eaten  the  plant  quickly  throws  out 
others,  so  it  is  pretty  sure  to  produce  a  marvelous  number  of 
fruits  or  burs.  In  summer  time,  when  the  rest  of  the  plant 
has  dried,  crumbled  and  nearly  disappeared,  the  burs  remain, 
sometimes  nearly  an  inch  deep  on  the  soil,  forming  what  is 
called  a  dry  pasture  ;  for  so  nutritive  are  the  seeds  that 
animals  eat  the  fruits  in  spite  of  the  prickles,  and  cattle 
grow  fat  on  hillsids  that  look  brown  and  barren.  So  do 
sheep  if  they  are  allowed  to  range  in  these  dry  pastures, 
but  usually  the  sheep  men  avoid  them  because  wool  is  so 
much  damaged  by  the  burs.  Of  course  the  sheep  help  to 
distribute  the  burs  that  lie  in  heaps  along  the  waysides. 
The  burs  are  sure  to  invade  cultivated  grounds  also  ;  some- 

203 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

times  they  germinate  in  spring  and  summer  in  highly  culti- 
vated orchards  and  gardens  and  become  troublesome  weeds. 
In  winter,  the  bur-clover  infests  lawns  and  tilled  soil 
generally. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  filaree  common  on  untilled 
California  land ;  the  red-stemmed  filaree ;  or  pin  clover, 
which  has  very  finely  cut  leaves,  usually  forming  flat 
rosettes,  and  the  musky  filaree  with  coarser,  paler 
leaves  that  grow  nearly  upright ;  the  musky  odor  is 
more  noticeable  when  the  leaves  are  wilted.  The  red- 
stemmed  filaree  is  very  widely  distributed,  and  is  a  good 
forage  plant,  but  the  musky  flavor  of  the  other  kind  seems 
to  be  disagreeable  to  cattle,  and  they  eat  it  only  in  limited 
quantities,  so  in  some  places  it  seems  likely  to  drive  out 
the  more  valuable  kind.  Fortunately  the  red-stemmed 
kind  is  the  hardier  ;  it  can  survive  severe  frosts,  and  in 
some  soils  can  even  defy  the  summer  drought.  We  have 
already  studied  the  fruits  of  the  filaree  and  can  readily 
understand  how  it  is  sure  to  appear  as  a  weed  in  cultivated 
soil. 

All  three  of  these  foreigners  seem  to  thrive  in  Califor- 
nia even  better  than  at  home.  There  is  another  immi- 
grant that  is  vastly  more  prosperous  in  this  climate  than  in 
its  native  soil,  the  fox-tail,  or  barley  grass.  In  England 
this  grass  is  called  the  wall-barley,  for  it  is  a  straggling, 
insignificant  weed  that  is  literally  crowded  to  the  walls  and 
crannies  by  stronger  plants ;  but  here  it  occupies  acres  of 
wayside  and  pasture  land,  crowding  out  other  and  better 
plants.  It  is  rarely  eaten  by  stock  except  when  it  is  very 
young,  and  its  habit  of  maturing  late  is  also  an  advantage. 
It  is  when  other  grasses  are  dying  back  that  the  fox- 
tail pushes  its  barbed  head  sunwards,  and,  unmolested, 
ripens  its  seeds.  And  such  a  pest  as  these  barbed  fruits 
become  !  They  bore  into  the  nostrils  of  grazing 
animals  ;  all  summer  they  lie  in  wait  for  anything  clothed 

204 


WEEDS 

in  cotton  or  wool,  and  when  once  they  seize  their  victim, 
every  movement  serves  to  drive  them  more  firmly  in.  We 
would  gladly  rid  ourselves  of  this  most  troublesome 
foreigner,  but  it  seems  impossible.  The  best  way  to  fight 
it  seems  to  be  by  encouraging  its  natural  enemy,  another 
weedy  but  less  objectionable  grass,  known  as  the  softbrome 
grass.  This  latter  grass  has  some  value  as  a  pasture  plant, 
and  so  have  some  other  introduced  grasses  commonly  classed 
as  weeds.  This  is  true  of  the  wild  oats,  which,  like  the 
filaree,  are  so  widespread  in  California  that  many  people 
refuse  to  believe  them  foreigners  at  all. 

In  countries  of  greater  rainfall  the  most  troublesome 
grasses  are  usually  those  with  perennial  stems,  which, 
lying  on  or  just  beneath  the  soil,  can  root  at  every  joint. 
We  have  native  grasses  of  this  sort  that  infest  our  moist, 
alkali  lands,  but  the  one  most  troublesome  in  cultivation  is 
again  a  foreigner,  the  Bermuda  grass.  When  once  this 
grass  gains  a  foothold  in  lawns  or  other  soil  kept  moist  by 
irrigation,  the  most  constant  effort  must  be  made  to  keep  it 
within  bounds. 

The  mustard  is  another  immigrant  whose  success 
should  advertise  the  climate  of  California.  We  have  already 
noticed  its  very  rapid  and  vigorous  growth,  and  its  multi- 
tudes of  seeds.  Its  prevalence  in  California  means,  of 
course,  the  loss  of  thousands  of  dollars  to  grain  growers 
every  year. 

Another  foreigner  that  does  mischief  in  grain  and 
pasture  lands  is  the  yellow  Melilot,  sometimes  called  bitter 
clover,  No.  i,  Fig.  72.  It  requires  a  rather  moist,  loose  soil, 
so  it  is  in  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  the  state  that  it 
is  most  troublesome  in  grain  fields.  In  the  south  it  selects 
choice  places,  along  irrigating  ditches  and  streams,  or  where 
there  is  moist  subsoil.  It  is  useless  for  pasturage,  as  when 
it  is  cut  with  grain  its  pronounced  flavor  taints  hay  and 
even  affects  wheat  and  flour. 

205 


Fig.  72.     PASTURE  WEEDS. 
1.     Star  Thistle— Centaurea  melitensis.  2.    Yellow  Melilot— tAf elilotus  Indica. 


WEEDS 

We  must  notice,  too,  the  European  water  cress,  which, 
winter  and  summer,  chokes  up  our  streams.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  know  that  in  this  case,  the  Western  world  has 
retaliated;  the  American  pond-weed,  Elodia,  is  much  more 
troublesome  in  the  water  ways  of  England  than  the  water 
cress  is  in  ours.  The  water  hyacinth,  originally  from 
South  America,  which  is  actually  ruining  navigation  in  the 
Florida  rivers,  is  probably  not  suited  to  California  streams. 

There  are  none  of  our  native  plants  that,  during  the 
growing  season,  deserve  the  name  of  weeds  throughout  the 
state  ;  but  there  are  some  that  are  locally  troublesome. 
Sometimes  they  thrive  because  of  strong  underground  parts; 
this  is  true  of  the  chilicothe,  poison  oak,  bracken  fern, 
morning-glory,  yerbamansa,  blue-eyed  grass,  and  some  kinds 
of  lupines,  Umbelliferse  and  lilies.  Others  are  rapidly 
growing  annuals  that  can  endure  a  drought  better  than 
cultivated  plants,  and  for  this  reason  become  specially 
troublesome  in  dry  years.  The  poppy,  though  a  perennial, 
should  be  counted  here,  because  it  matures  so  rapidly  from 
the  seed.  In  the  drier  grain  fields  of  the  south  in  bad 
seasons,  it  quite  crowds  out  the  grain,  but  farther  north, 
where  the  spring  bloom  is  usually  prevented  by  cultivation, 
it  bides  its  time,  and  comes  up  in  full  bloom  in  the  autumn 
months.  All  over  the  state,  wherever  it  once  held  sway, 
it  is  ready  to  repossess  neglected  spots.  Other  native 
plants  that  still  assert  themselves,  even  in  grain  fields,  are 
the  yellow  forget-me-not,  or  Amsinckia,  the  Calandrinia, 
a  Portulaca  with  bright  magenta  flowers,  the  owl's  clover, 
or  Orthocarpus,  tidy-tips  and  some  small  Cruciferse.  All 
these  native  weeds  seem  likely  to  disappear  as  our  state 
grows  older  and  the  soil  is  more  carefully  tilled.  Even  now 
they  do  comparatively  little  harm,  and  we  are  almost  sorry 
to  think  of  the  time  when  there  will  be  no  gay  flowers 
mingling  with  the  growing  grain. 

The  weeds  of  the  dry  season  naturally  interfere  much 

207 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

less  with  cultivation ;  some  must  rob  the  soil  of  valuable 
food  material,  others  are  certainly  disagreeable,  but  it  is 
possible  that  some  do  not  deserve  the  name  weed  at  all. 
Of  our  native  weeds,  sunflowers  are  the  most  greedy  ;  they 
choose  the  best  places,  overrunning  soil  that  is  loose  and 
rich  and  not  too  dry.  As  soon  as  the  grain  is  cut,  they 
shoot  rapidly  upward  and  soon  form  thickets  miles  in  extent, 
affording  snug  shelter  to  hosts  of  sparrows  and  meadow 
larks.  The  myriads  of  seeds  feed  the  birds,  but  must  take 
much  nitrogenous  matter  from  the  soil. 

On  thousands  of  acres  in  California  the  grain  is  replaced 
in  summer  and  autumn  by  tar- weeds  or  other  resinous, 
strongly  scented  plants.  The  true  tar- weeds  are  Composite ; 
they  are  found  in  greatest  profusion  in  the  central  valleys. 
In  the  southern  counties,  the  well-known  Trichostema,  or 
blue-curls,  is  sometimes  called  tar- weed,  and  there  is  a  very 
sticky  Gilia  that  deserves  its  name  of  skunk  weed.  The 
turkey- weed  is  armed,  as  you  remember,  with  dense,  prickly 
hairs  instead  of  a  resinous  coat.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any 
of  these  weeds  are  particularly  injurious  to  crops,  except, 
of  course,  such  as  spring  up  before  the  grain  is  cut ;  it  is 
even  possible  that  they  are  useful  in  helping  to  loosen  the 
soil  and  in  producing  certain  chemical  changes,  but  this 
has  not  been  proved.  The  odors  of  some  of  these  plants 
offend  us,  and  their  resinous  coating  ruins  our  clothing  ; 
along  our  dusty  waysides,  too,  their  dust -laden  foliage  is 
not  pleasing  ;  on  the  other  hand,  some  of  them  have  an 
agreeable,  spicy  odor,  and  in  masses  many  are  positively 
attractive  to  the  eye.  Some  of  the  tar- weeds  have  slender 
graceful  stems  supporting  myriads  of  starry  flowers  ;  the 
Trichostema  is  a  beautiful  plant  as  long  as  you  do  not 
touch  it ;  and  the  soft  grey- green  color  of  the  turkey- weed 
blends  harmoniously  with  the  prevailing  summer  browns. 

The  summer  weeds  that  are  most  troublesome  are 
again  the  foreigners.  One  of  the  worst  of  these,  No.  2, 

208 


Fig.  73.     WAYSIDE  WEEDS. 
1.     Dock.        2.    Knotweed.       3.    Sow-thistle.  4.    Pigweed. 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

Fig.  72,  is  nearly  related  to  the  thistle;  it  is  often  called 
the  yellow  star  thistle ;  another  common  name  for  it  is  the 
prickly  tar-weed,  and  its  Spanish  name  is  tocalote.  The 
plants  spring  up  in  winter,  but  it  is  not  until  early  summer 
that  they  become  most  troublesome.  To  the  disagree- 
able qualities  of  tar-weed  they  add  extremely  numerous 
and  prickly  flower  heads.  In  pastures  they  are  a  great 
pest,  driving  out  all  valuable  vegetation.  In  the  central 
and  northern  portions  of  the  state,  this  weed  is  most  abun- 
dant and  vigorous,  maturing  sometimes  three  crops  of  seeds 
from  May  to  December.  In  the  south  it  is  usually  confined 
to  hillsides,  but  its  place,  as  a  pasture  and  wayside  weed, 
is  fully  supplied  by  an  equally  objectionable  foreigner,  the 
hoarhound.  The  hoarhound  has  some  virtue  as  a  remedy 
for  colds,  but  it  monopolizes  valuable  pasture  lands,  and  as 
a  wayside  weed  is  most  exasperating;  one's  clothing,  brush- 
ing ever  so  lightly  against  it,  comes  away  covered  with  its 
fruits,  enclosed  in  their  little,  sharp-pointed,  gray  calyxes. 
Other  wayside  weeds,  the  cocklebur,  all  over  the  state, 
and  the  Spanish  needle  in  the  south,  have  the  same  un- 
pleasant method  of  compelling  us  to  distribute  their  seeds. 
We  have  a  native  "Jimson"  weed,  which  has  all  the  bad 
habits  of  its  foreign  companions.  Nettles  have  still  another 
way  of  making  themselves  disagreeable.  Other  foreign 
weeds  that  live  along  our .  waysides,  and  thence  invade 
orchards  and  gardens,  are  the  sow-thistle,  sometimes 
called  milkweed,  the  pigweed,  dock,  knotweed,  tumble- 
weed,  and  the  like;  humble,  homely  plants  all  of  them,  as 
their  names  imply.  Yet  few  of  us  would  complain  that 
nature  is  so  ready  to  cover  neglected  places  with  life  and 
growth.  It  is  not  possible  to  explain  fully  the  hardiness 
of  these  weeds;  most  of  them  are  able,  when  trodden  or  cut 
down,  to  send  out  at  once  vigorous  new  shoots,  and  they 
have  various  devices  for  meeting  dangers  from  drought 
and  grazing  animals;  but  their  greatest  strength  probably 

210 


WEEDS 

lies  in  the  wide  distribution  of  their  seed.  The  sow  this- 
tle seeds  have  floaters,  and  are  carried  everywhere  by  the 
wind.  You  will  see  the  plants  growing  on  the  face  of 
perpendicular  banks  of  clay,  and  we  have  to  be  always 
watchful  to  keep  them  out  of  our  lawns.  The  other  weeds 
mentioned  have,  like  the  mustard,  exceedingly  numerous 
small  seeds,  and  in  the  plant  world,  as  everywhere  else, 
it  is  often  the  small  things  that  do  the  most  mischief.  In 
lyOS  Angeles  and  other  towns  of  Southern  California,  va- 
cant city  lots,  and  waste  places  generally,  are  likely  to 
become  small  forests  of  castor-bean  or  tree  tobacco;  but 
it  would  seem  very  ungrateful  to  call  these  handsome 
plants  weeds. 

On  the  whole,  California  is  not  afflicted  to  an  unusual 
degree  with  noxious  weeds.  Many  of  the  worst  plant 
pests  of  our  Eastern  States,  such  as  the  Canada  thistle, 
burdock,  ragweed,  chess,  and  so  forth,  have  not  succeeded 
here,  but  others,  like  the  mayweed  and  dandelion,  may 
gain  upon  us  before  we  know  it.  Of  European  weeds, 
the  morning-glory  and  Russian  thistle  threaten  to  become 
very  troublesome.  We  need  to  know  weeds  and  to  be 
constantly  watchful  for  those  that  are  likely  to  become 
serious  pests.  The  war  with  weeds  must  be  unceasing. 
Cultivated  plants  have  lost  the  power  of  caring  for  them- 
selves, and  we  shall  always  have  to  protect  them  against 
vigorous  weeds  that  have  for  centuries  fought  their  own 
way,  some  of  them  all  the  way  from  the  fertile  valleys  of 
Asia  across  two  continents  to  the  western  shore  of  the 
western  world.-  Work  diligently  as  we  may  to  extermin- 
ate the  weeds  from  our  own  fields,  there  are  always  waste 
places,  or  perhaps  the  lands  of  thriftless  neighbors,  that 
serve  as  nurseries  for  more  of  these  sturdy  waifs. 


211 


ERRATA 

Page  18;  for  Hydyodictyon,  read  Hydrodictyon. 
Page  118;  for  anacetifolia,  read  tanacetifolia. 
Page  207,  line  4;  for  Elodia,  read  Elodea. 


212 


BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 


Kerner  &  Oliver,  Natural  History  of  Plants,  Henry 
Holt  &  Co. 

This  book  should  head  the  list,  although  its  cost,  $15, 
bars  it  from  many  school  libraries.  It  is  beautifully  illus- 
trated, is  modern,  generally  reliable  and  exceedingly  inter- 
esting, and  it  is  not  too  technical  for  the  general  reader. 

Bergen,  Elements  of  Botany,  Pacific  Coast  Edition, 
Ginn  &  Co. 

Spalding,  Introduction  to  Botany,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Campbell,  Structural  and  Systematic  Botany,  Ginn 
&  Co. 

MacDougal,  Experimental  Plant  Physiology,  Henry 
Holt  &  Co. 

These  are  probably  the  most  helpful  text  books  for 
the  general  reader  or  primary  teacher  on  our  coast. 
The  first  two  deal  with  both  the  physiology  and  the 
structure  of  plants  ;  both  give  lists  of  books  for  the  use 
of  more  advanced  students.  Prof.  Campbell's  book  is 
especially  good  for  work  with  the  lower  plants.  There  are 
several  excellent  laboratory  guides,  among  them  one  by 
Prof.  Setchell  of  the  State  University. 

We  have  no  one  Flora  at  all  satisfactory  for  the  identi- 
fication of  Pacific  Coast  plants.  One  who  has  mastered 
technical  terms  sufficiently  to  use  an  artificial  key,  will  find 
Rattan's  California  Flora  the  most  convenient  for  work 
with  common  flowering  plants  throughout  the  state,  but 

218 


BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE. 

it  omits  some  of  the  most  interesting  families.  Prof.  E.  I/. 
Greene's  Flora  Franciscana  deals  more  fully  with  the  plants 
of  Central  California.  Watson's  Botany  of  California,  in 
two  large,  expensive  volumes,  is  necessary  for  anything 
like  thorough  work.  Other  aids  are  mentioned  in  Miss 
Eastwood's  Preface  to  Part  II  of  Bergen 's  Botany.  This 
Part  II,  a  Key  and  Flora,  is  most  helpful  to  one  who  has 
some  general  knowledge  of  plant  families.  Miss  Parsons' 
Wild  Flowers  of  California^  Doxey,  San  Francisco,  is  a 
delightful  book  and  by  the  aid  of  its  illustrations  the 
names  of  many  of  our  common  plants  may  be  easily  found . 
For  a  complete  list  of  the  flora  of  Los  Angeles  county 
the  following  works  may  with  advantage  be  consulted  : 
Plants  of  Los  Angeles  County,  Anstruther  Davidson,  M.  D., 
C.  M,;  Seedless  Plants  of  Southern  California,  Alfred  James 
McClatchie,  A.  M.;  Lichens,  Dr.  Hasse. 

John  Muir's  Mountains  of  California  gives  most  vivid 
pictures  of  some  features  of  our  flora,  and  the  book  should 
be  accessible  to  all  California  school  children  ;  the  well 
known  works  of  Darwin,  Lubbock  and  Grant  Allen  are,  of 
course,  helpful  in  the  study  of  the  habits  of  plants,  and  no 
one  interested  in  nature  study  should  do  without  the 
inspiration  of  John  Burroughs'  books. 


214 


PRONUNCIATION   OF    BOTANICAL  NAHES 
USED  IN  READER. 


The  accent  mark  will  usually  be  sufficient  to  indicate  the  pronuncia- 
tion, since  it  is  customary  to  give  the  English  sounds  of  the  letters  in 
Latin  names.  If  the  accented  syllable  ends  in  a  consonant  the  vowel  is 
long,  otherwise  it  is  short ;  se  has  the  sound  of  long  e.  A  few  Spanish 
names  are  included  in  the  list,  but  generally  these  will  be  familiar  to 
Californiaus. 


Adenos'toma. 

Adian'tum. 

Aggrega'tae. 

Al'ga,  plural  Al'gae  (Al'je). 

Alys'sum. 

An'giosperms. 

Amsinck'ia. 

Ar'butus. 

Ascle'pias  eriocar'pa. 

Audiber'tia  polystach'ya  stachyoi'- 

des. 

Bloome'ria. 
Brodise'a  capita'ta. 
Calandrin'ia. 
Calochor'tus  al'bus. 

Catali'nse. 
Calyciflo'rae. 
Canai'gre. 

Castille'ia  parviflo'ra. 
Centaure'a  nieliten'sis. 
Chamisal'. 
Chaparral'. 
Chilico'the. 
Chlo'rophyll. 
Clem'atis. 


Cni'cus. 

Cocome'ta. 

Collin'sia. 

Compos'itae. 

Conif'erae. 

Cotyle'don. 

Cruciferae. 

Cyc'lamen. 

Delphin'ium. 

Dicotyle'don. 

Dodeca'theron  Clevelan'di. 

Ellis'ia  chrysanthemifo'lia. 

Elo'dea. 

Kn'dogen. 

En'dosperm. 

Equise'tum. 

Eremocar'pus  setig'era. 

Eriog'onum  elonga'tum 

fascicula'tum. 
Ero'dium  cicuta'rium. 
Eschschol'tzia. 
Euphor'bia. 
Ex'ogen 

Fun'gus,  plural  Fun'gi  (Fun'ji). 
Gil'ia,  commonly  Jil'ia,    Spanish, 
he'lia. 


215 


PRONUNCIA  TIONS. 


Gil'ia  dianthoi'des  multicaul'is. 

Gladi'olus. 

Gnapha'lium. 

Gode'tia  Bot'tse. 

Grevil'lea. 

Gym'nosperm 

Helian'thus   an'nuus. 

Hosack'ia. 

Hy  d  rodic'ty  on . 

Legumino'sae. 

U'chen  (U'ken  ) 

Ivo'tus  gla'ber. 

Lupi'nus  sparsiflo'rus. 

Macrocys'tis. 

Madrone'  (madron),  also  mad rona 

and  madrono. 
Malaco'thrix  tenuiio'lia. 
Manzani'ta  (manzane'ta.) 
Matil'ija  (Matil'iha). 
Meconop'sis 
Medica'go  denticula'ta, 

sati'va. 
Megarrhi'za. 
Melilo'tus  In'dica. 
Mentze'lia. 
Micram'pelis. 
Mim'ulus  cardina'lis. 
lu'teus. 
glutino'sus. 
Monocotyle'dou , 
Narcis'sus. 
Nastur'tium . 
Nemoph'ila  auri'ta. 
G^nothe'ra  cheiranthifo'lia,  var. 

sufFrutico'sa. 
Opun'tia. 


Or'chid  (Or'kid). 

Orthorcar'pus  purpuras'cens. 

Paeo'nia. 

Papy'rus. 

Pentste'mon  cordifo'lius. 

heterophyl'lus. 
Peuceda'num  utricula'tum. 
Phace'lia  tanacetifo'lia 

Whitla'via. 
Pinon'  (Pinyon'j. 
Plagioboth'rys  nothoful'vus. 
Ploca'mium, 
Poinset'tia. 
Portula'ca. 
Prothal'lium. 
Pro'toplasm. 
Ranun'culus. 
Ri'bes  ama'rum. 

glutino'sum. 
Ric'inus. 
Rhododen'dron. 
Sal' via  Columba'riae. 
Se'dum. 
Sequoi'a. 
Sisyrin'chium. 
Sola'num  Douglas'ii. 
Stom'ata. 
Tocalo'te. 

Trichoste'ma  lanceola'tum. 
Tu'le. 

Umbelliferae. 
Vio'la  peduncula'ta. 
Woodwar'dia. 
Yuc'ca. 
Zauschne'ria. 


216 


CALIFORNIA  PLANTS 

IN   THEIR    HOMES 


ALICE    MERRITT    DAVIDSON 

Formerly  Teacher  of  Botany  in  the  State  Normal  School, 
Los  Angeles,  California. 


SUPPLEMENT 
FOR    USE    OF    TEACHERS 


1898 

B.  R.  BAUMGARDT  &  CO. 
I/>s  ANGEI,ES,  CAL. 


COPYRIGHT,  1898 

BY 
ALICE    MERRITT    DAVIDSON 


CHAPTER  I. 


SOflE   PLANTS  THAT   LEAD   EASY   LIVES. 

The  aim  of  this  chapter  is  to  set  children  to  thinking  of  plants  as 
living,  growing  things  requiring  food  and  subject  to  dangers.  In  the 
study  of  the  most  elementary  principles  of  plant  physiology  a  clear 
conception  of  the  cell,  chlorophyll  and  protoplasm  is  helpful,  and 
these  ideas  are  more  easily  gained  from  lower  than  from  higher  plants. 
The  cell  of  the  water  net,  even  without  the  microscope,  is  a  definite, 
tangible  object.  All  green  Algae  are  excellent  for  illustrating  the 
giving  off  of  oxygen,  and  the  marine  Algee  tell  a  very  striking  slory 
of  the  adaptation  of  plants  to  their  surroundings.  So  Algee  have 
been  chosen  to  illustrate  this  chapter,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  many 
teachers  are  not  familiar  with  them  and  will  naturally  be  reluctant 
to  use  them.  But,  since  in  this  case  neither  great  knowledge  of  minute 
structure  nor  special  skill  in  manipulation  is  required,  it  is  earnestly 
hoped  that  children  will  be  encouraged  to  bring  material  to  illustrate 
this  lesson. 

Hydrodictyon,  or  water  net,  is  the  most  attractive  of  the  fresh 
water  Algae  if  a  microscope  is  not  available,  and  it  is  very  abundant, 
in  Southern  California  at  least.  As  noted  in  the  Reader,  the  larger 
nets  are  usually  found  much  broken  up,  but  smaller  entire  ones  are 
pretty  sure  to  be  entangled  with  them.  The  children,  in  searching 
for  them  should  use  small  quantities,  examining  them  in  the  water, 
either  in  white  dishes  or  in  thin  glass  jars  in  a  good  light. 

For  the  study  of  the  cell  the  coarsest  pieces  of  net  should  be  used. 
The  term  meshes  is  applied  to  the  spaces  enclosed  by  the  four  to  seven 
sides.  The  teacher  should  make  sure  that  the  children  understand 
that  each  one  of  these  sides  is  a  cell.  The  term  cell  is  so  misleading 
that  beginners  are  likely  to  apply  it  to  the  meshes  instead.  The  cells 
of  the  water  net  are  usually  large  and  clearly  defined,  so  that  with 
only  a  hand  lens  and  the  pictures,  children  can  gain  a  tolerably  clear 
notion  of  their  nature,  but  they  will  be  much  more  impressed  by 
seeing  them  under  a  low  power  of  a  compound  microscope.  They 


SUPPLEMENT 

will  be  quick  to  compare  them  with  familiar  objects.  A  class  of  little 
folks  with  whom  I  once  experimented  likened  the  cells  to  links  of 
sausage,  and  the  homely  comparison  showed  that  they  were  thinking 
of  the  cell  as  some  substance  enclosed  in  a  sac  ;  a  truer  conception 
than  the  botanists  who  named  the  cell  possessed,  for  the  early 
botanists,  using  sections  of  higher  plants,  gave  their  attention  only 
to  the  cell  wall  and  quite  missed  the  fact  that  the  wall  is  to  the  cell 
only  what  its  shell  is  to  a  snail  or  lobster. 

Children  should  be  allowed  to  find  out  for  themselves  that  chloro- 
phyll is  dissolved  by  alcohol,  and  that  the  jelly-like  substance  and 
the  granules  still  remain.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  chlorophyll  is  confined 
to  small  protoplasmic  bodies  called  chloroplasts,  but  in  the  water  nets 
these  chloroplasts  are  so  closely  packed '  against  the  cell  walls  that 
the  cell  contents  seem  uniformly  colored.  There  are  other  details  of 
cell  structure  that  it  would  not  be  wise  to  impose  upon  children.  For 
instance,  the  protoplasm  in  mature  cells  lines  the  walls  but  does  not 
fill  the  entire  cell  cavity,  there  being  much  water  or  cell  sap  ;  in  each 
cell  some  of  the  protoplasm  is  differentiated  into  nuclei  that  take  part 
in  cell  division  ;  the  starch  stores  are  collected  about  little  glistening 
bodies  called  pyrenoids,  etc.  In  the  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Sep- 
tember, 1896,  the  teacher  will  find  a  summary  of  what  is  at  present 
known  about  the  cell  and  the  division  of  labor  among  its  parts. 
Kerner,  in  the  first  chapter  of  his  Natural  History  of  Plants,  gives 
a  vivid  conception  of  the  cell.  He  says  :  "  It  is  not  a  mere  phrase, 
but  a  literal  fact,  that  the  protoplasts  build  their  abodes  themselves, 
divide  and  adapt  their  interiors  according  to  their  requirements,  store 
up  necessary  supplies  within  them,  and  most  important  of  all,  provide 
the  wherewithal  needful  for  nutrition,  for  maintenance  and  for 
reproduction." 

The  bubbles  of  gas  given  off  by  the  plants  in  the  sunlight  can  be 
easily  tested  by  means  of  a  simple  apparatus.  Some  water  net  is  put 
under  a  glass  funnel  in  a  glass  jar  of  water,  and  a  test  tube  filled  with 
water  is  inverted  over  the  end  of  a  funnel.  After  the  apparatus  has 
been  kept  in  the  sunlight  two  or  three  days,  the  water  in  the  top  of 
the  tube  will  be  replaced  by  enough  oxygen  to  be  easily  tested.  The 
teacher  has  only  to  take  the  tube  from  the  jar  and  invert  it,  keeping 
the  open  end  covered  until  an  assistant  has  lighted  a  match  or  a 
splinter  and  blown  out  the  flame  after  an  instant ;  when  the  glowing 
wood  is  inserted  in  the  gas,  as  the  cover  is  removed,  the  oxygen  cauces 
it  to  burst  into  flame.  It  will  seem  quite  credible  to  the  children  that 
this  gas  which  rekindles  the  flame  is  the  life-sustaining  portion  of  the 
air.  In  the  first  chapter  of  NeweWs  Lessons  in  Botany  several 


CHAPTER   I 

more  experiments  are  suggested  to  emphasize  the  nature  of  two  gases, 
oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  At  any  rate,  the  teacher  should  famil- 
iarize the  pupils  with  the  names  of  the  gases  and  some  every-day  facts 
about  them.  For  instance,  that  we  are  uncomfortable  in  a  close  room 
because  the  oxygen  is  being  exhausted,  so  we  let  in  fresh  air,  which 
means  air  with  fresh  supplies  of  oxygen  ;  that  in  all  life  and  growth 
material  is  constantly  being  used  up,  so  that  waste  substance  is  being 
breathed  out  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas  by  all  living  things  ; 
that  when  material  burns  more  rapidly,  wood,  coal,  coal-oil,  illumi- 
nating gas,  etc.,  the  same  gas  is  given  off.  The  wonderful  story  of 
how  this  product  of  waste,  carbon  dioxide,  is  made  over  by  green 
plants  into  food  for  themselves,  and  so  more  or  less  indirectly  becomes 
food  for  all  the  living  world,  is  a  story  that  interests  the  youngest 
children. 

Children  old  enough  to  use  the  reader  are  likely  to  ask  questions 
that  will  demand  knowledge  of  some  of  the  following  facts: — 
the  water  in  which  Algae  live  always  contains  carbon  dioxide  or 
CO  2 — a  compound  of  two  parts  oxygen  and  one  of  carbon — which  it 
has  absorbed  from  the  air.  The  formula  for  water  isEUO — two  parts  of 
hydrogen  to  one  of  oxygen.  Nowvhile  starch  and  similar  substances, 
all  classed  as  carbohydrates,  are  known  to  consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  in  definite  proportions,  it  is  not  possible  to  artificially 
manufacture  them  from  these  elements.  It  is  only  in  the  cell  labora- 
tories of  green  plants  that  this  combining  or  synthesis  (photosynthesis 
some  botanists  call  it)  takes  place,  so  green  plants  only  can  bridge 
the  gulf  between  the  inorganic  and  the  organic  world.  Just  how  this 
is  done  is  not  known.  The  protoplasm  of  the  chloroplasts  must  be 
the  builder,  the  sun's  rays  supply  the  motive  force,  and  there  are 
theories  about  the  part  played  by  the  chlorophyll,  but  no  one  claims  to 
have  solved  fully  this  mystery  of  life. 

These  primary  organic  substances  are,  by  chemical  changes,  con- 
verted into  all  the  other  compounds,  such  as  albumen,  cellulose, 
starch,  fats,  pigments,  etc.,  of  which  the  bodies  of  plants  and  animals 
are  composed.  The  technical  term  applied  to  these  changes  in  plants 
is  metabolism.  The  impelling  force  for  these  chemical  changes  is 
obtained  by  oxidation  ;  that  is,  the  protoplasm  withdraws  oxygen 
from  the  air  and  uses  it  in  burning  a  portion  of  the  carbohydrates, 
but  only  a  fraction — sometimes  ^  or  -^  of  the  amount  manufactured 
by  the  plants.  So  plants,  like  animals,  respire,  that  is,  use  oxygen 
and  give  off  carbon  dioxide.  Other  inorganic  substances  than  carbon 
di9xide  and  water  are  used  in  these  chemical  processes.  Nitrogen  is 
necessary  and  so  are  several  mineral  salts,  such  as  sulphur  and  iron. 


SUPPLEMEN7~ 

Some  marine  plants  use  much  iodine,  or  soda,  or  calcium,  each  plant 
selecting  from  the  thousands  of  gallons  of  water  flowing  over  it  the 
special  mineral  it  requires. 

These  manufactured  organic  substances  of  course  serve  primarily 
for  the  growth  of  the  plant,  that  is,  for  the  extension  of  protoplasm 
and  the  envelopes  produced  by  it,  but  surplus  food  is  stored,  often  in 
the  form  of  starch  as  in  the  water  net.  The  starch  can  be  identified 
by  putting  iodine  on  the  colorless  plants  taken  from  the  alcohol,  and 
comparing  the  color  of  the  grains  with  color  of  wheat  flour  similarly 
treated.  The  iodine  of  commerce  will  answer. 

Beyond  comparing  the  size  of  the  smallest  nets  with  the  largest 
mature  cells,  the  children  will  have  to  take  the  story  of  reproduction 
on  authority,  but  it  can  be  made  an  interesting  one.  Develop  from 
the  children  the  fact  that  the  little  protoplasts  join  hands  and  form 
nets  for  safety.  They  are  not  so  easily  swept  away  or  swallowed  by 
little  animals.  The  statement  that  the  stronger  method  of 
reproduction  by  resting  spores  occurs  as  danger  approaches  is  based 
on  laboratory  experiments,  in  which  the  two  kinds  of  reproduction 
are  induced  by  simulating  favorable  and  unfavorable  natural  condi- 
tions. The  spore  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  tiny  protoplasts  does 
not  grow  directly  into  a  new  net.  It  first  divides  into  several  pecu- 
liarly shaped  cells  which  may  ultimately  become  nets. 

Instead  of  water  net,  the  children  may  find  Algae  that  consist 
entirely  of  threads  or  filaments.  They  may  be  rough  to  the  touch 
and  branched,  as  No.  5,  Fig.  4,  which  represents  Cladophora,  or  water 
flannel.  No.  6  is  an  outline  drawing  of  part  of  the  same  under  the 
microscope.  The  individual  cells  closely  resemble  those  of  water  net. 
Or  the  children  may  find  pond-scum  or  water  silk  consisting  of  slimy 
unbranched  filaments.  Nos.  3  and  4  represent  two  kinds  of  water 
silk,  Spirogyra  and  Zygnema,  under  the  microscope.  As  the  chloro- 
plasts  of  these  plants  are  spiral  bands  or  more  or  less  star-like  masses, 
these  plants  are  particularly  attractive  under  the  microscope.  All  of 
these  filaments  lengthen  by  a  process  called  cell  division.  From 
about  the  middle  of  the  cylindrical  cell  wall  a  ring  of  cellulose,  as  the 
substance  comprising  the  cell  wall  is  called,  pushes  its  way  toward 
the  center  of  the  cell  until  it  becomes  a  circular  partition  dividing  the 
former  cell  into  two  cells  which  soon  attain  full  growth.  In  Clado- 
phora branches  push  out  at  first  like  little  swellings.  All  of  these 
filamentous  Algae  reproduce  by  fragments,  just  as  higher  plants  are 
propagated  by  slips  or  cuttings.  Cladophora  reproduces  also  by 
zoospores,  that  is,  the  many  protoplasts  into  which  a  mature  cell  may 
divide,  escape  and  swim  about  for  a  time  before  growing  into  new 

6 


CHAPTER    I 

filaments.  The  term  spore  is  applied  to  a  protoplast  that  is  capable  of 
growing  into  a  new  plant,  and  the  prefix  "  zoo  "  means  behaving  like 
an  animal,  that  is,  moving.  The  pond-scums  do  not  produce  zoos- 
pores  but  form  strong  resting  spores  by  a  union  of  the  contents  of 
two  cells,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  Nos.  I  and  4.  These  conjugating  fila- 
ments are  frequently  found  in  nearly  exhausted  pools ;  without  the 
microscope  they  look  rather  broken  up  and  spoiled. 

Among  the  plants  brought  by  children  to  illustrate  this  lesson  there 
may  be  a  dark  blue-green  slime  that  they  may  have  found  coating  the 
sides  of  ditches  or  reservoirs.  This  is  likely  to  be  Oscillatoria,  and  it 
belongs  to  the  lowest  group  of  plants,  the  Protophytes,  the  group  that 
includes  bacteria.  A  minute  bit  of  this  slime,  undisturbed  in  a  dish 
of  water,  will  show  radiation  of  the  filaments  in  less  than  an  hour, 
and  in  twenty-four  hours  it  will  exhibit  in  a  striking  way  the  move- 
ments of  the  plants  in  order  to  secure  better  conditions  for  food.  To  be 
sure,  this  movement  may  be  mistaken  for  growth.  The  children  will 
be  quite  likely  so  say  that  the  plants  have  "sprouted"  or  floated. 
The  microscope  will  demonstrate  the  movement,  which  is  mainly  an 
oscillating  one.  But  in  default  of  the  microscope,  children  will  take 
the  fact  of  movement  on  authority  and  will  be  interested  in  watching 
evidence  of  it  and  in  thinking  out  its  use  to  the  plants.  They  will  be 
quick  to  discover  the  slime  on  damp  walls  and  flower-pots,  and  green 
film  on  stagnant  pools  ;  and  they  will  gradually  become  impressed 
with  the  fact  of  the  existence  of  a  wonderful  microscopic  world. 
This  world  appeals  to  children's  imaginations,  and  while  most  uni- 
cellular plants,  especially  bacteria,  are  much  too  small  to  be  handled  in 
elementary  work,  a  well  informed  teacher  will  find  no  difficulty  in 
impressing  children  with  some  practical  truths  about  them. 

If  microscopes  are  used  at  all,  some  unicellular  organisms  are 
pretty  sure  to  be  encountered  incidentally  in  work  with  fresh  water 
Algae  ;  the  pretty,  green,  crescent-shaped  destnids,  perhaps;  or  little 
active,  transparent  infusorians ;  or,  most  common  of  all,  little, 
brown,  boat-shaped  organisms,  diatoms,  that  move  about  in  a  jerky 
way.  The  desmids  are  plants,  the  infusorians  animals;  the  diatoms 
are  still  included  among  plants  in  most  text  books  in  Botany,  but 
excellent  authorities  have  of  late  relegated  them  to  the  animal  king- 
dom ;  so  thus  the  fact  that  there  is  no  sharp  dividing  line  between  the 
plant  and  the  animal  world  is  illustrated. 

Children  who  live  by  the  sea,  or  even  those  who  visit  the  sea  only 
occasionally,  should  not  miss  the  pleasure  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  some  common  marine  Algae.  The  teacher  can,  in  one  visit  to 
the  sea,  lay  in  a  stock  of  specimens  that  will  last  for  years.  The 


SUPPLEMENT 

coarse,  large  kelps  will  stand  repeated  drying  and  soaking,  and  the 
more  delicate  plants  can  be  preserved  in  all  their  attractiveness.  On 
the  rocks  at  low  tide  they  find  the  bright  green  ruffled  and  translu- 
cent little  fronds  of  sea  lettuce  (Ulva) ,  and  perhaps  some  of  the  fila- 
mentous green  Algae.  The  common  marine  Cladophora  has  much 
shorter  filaments  that  the  fresh  water  plant  and  grows  in  spongy 
tufts  that  are  well  able  to  resist  the  waves. 

Rock  weed  (Fucus)  is  the  most  abundant  of  the  Algse  in  shallow 
water.  The  plant  is  rarely  more  than  a  foot  in  length,  and  it  has 
many  flattened  branches  that  bifurcate  repeatedly  ;  in  the  ends  of 
the  branches  little  dots  are  apparent.  The  rock  weed  is  not  espec- 
ially attractive,  but  it  grows  so  near  the  shore  that  at  low  tide  it  can 
always  be  studied  on  its  native  rocks,  and  the  tenacity  of  the  holdfast, 
and  the  toughness,  elasticity  and  flexibility  of  its  branches  tested. 
Entire  plants  of  Macrocystis  are  frequently  thrown  up  on  the  beaches 
with  holdfasts  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  There  are  likely  to  be 
fragments  of  many  other  kelps  with  interesting  holdfasts  and  air  sacs. 
One  kind  common  on  Southern  California  beaches  is  the  Neyreocystis. 
The  stem  is  unbranched  for  many  yards  and  terminates  in  a  great  air 
sac  six  inches  or  more  in  diameter,  which  floats  a  whorl  of  branches 
with  leaf-like  expansions.  A  particularly  graceful  brown  Algae,  the 
sea  oak,  can  be  found  at  the  lowest  tides  growing  on  the  rocks.  It 
has  a  solid  holdfast  and  the  stem  soon  branches  into  divisions  that 
resemble  lobed  oak  leaves.  Farther  up  the  divisions  become  a  series 
of  air  sacs  that  resemble  strings  of  amber  beads.  In  order  to  appre- 
ciate fully  the  significance  of  the  floaters,  one  must  keep  in  mind  the 
fact  that  sunlight  as  well  as  chlorophyll  is  necessary  to  plants  that 
make  their  food  from  inorganic  matter. 

Seven  hundred  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  sea  there  is  absolute 
darkness,  and  the  zone  of  vegetation  is  usually  limited  to  within  one 
hundred  feet  of  the  surface.  This  latter  fact  is  due  not  merely  to  the 
dimness  of  light.  It  is  easily  shown  by  experiments  that,  of  the  rays 
of  different  colors  and  wave  lengths  that  together  make  up  colorless 
daylight,  only  the  red,  yellow  and  orange  rays  help  in  manufacturing 
the  primary  organic  material.  Other  rays  have  the  reverse  effect, 
breaking  up  this  material  for  further  changes.  Now  salt  water 
absorbs  the  red,  yellow  and  orange  rays,  that  is,  it  is  blue  ;  so  it  is 
well  for  the  larger  brown  Algae  to  be  held  near  the  surface  by  the 
air  sacs. 

Our  red  Algae  are  much  smaller,  and  those  that  grow  in  deep  water 
cannot  reach  the  surface,  hence  the  necessity  for  the  red  pigment ; 
for  this  pigment  has  the  quality  of  florescence,  that  is,  of  absorbing 

8 


CHAPTER    I 

some  rays  and  giving  out  others.  In  this  case  it  changes  blue  rays  to 
some  extent  to  red,  yellow  and  orange  ones,  and  so  enables  the 
chloroplasts  to  perform  their  mission. 

Red  Algae  that  grow  near  the  shores  are  not  usually  brightly  colored, 
in  fact  they  are  almost  sure  to  be  mistaken  for  green  Algae  by  the 
novice.  The  genus  Gigartina  illustrates  this  fact  well.  Gigartinas 
are  very  common  on  our  coast.  They  are  characterized  by  little  ele- 
vations, some  of  which  bear  globular  spore  fruits.  One  species, 
Gigartina  horrida,  has  very  narrow  divisions  so  that  the  plant  resem- 
bles bunches  of  coarse,  dark  green  chenille.  Another  species  has 
fronds  so  wide  that  the  children  call  it  apron  kelp.  This  grows  in 
deeper  water  and  is  a  deep  purplish  crimson.  There  are  interme- 
diate species  that  show  all  possible  graduations  of  color,  according  to 
the  depth  of  water.  As  these  Gigartinas  bleach  on  the  beach  they 
present  a  great  variety  of  color,  the  red  or  purple  color  fading  to  pink, 
and  finally  vanishing  and  exposing  the  chlorophyll,  which  in  turn 
fades  out.  This  fact  has  given  rise  to  the  term  "  calico  "  kelps  that 
children  often  apply  to  them.  Our  most  common  red,  feather  moss, 
Plocamium,  and  many  other  delicate  and  brilliantly  colored  species 
grow  in  deeper  water.  Another  common  genus  among  red  Algae  is 
Corallina,  named  from  the  resemblance  to  coral.  And  here  again  the 
idea  of  the  similarity  in  form  of  lower  plants  and  animals  can  be  im- 
pressed, for  coral  is  animal,  but  Corallina  is  plant,  while  a  very  pretty, 
graceful  thing  that  they  will  call  brown  feather  moss,  seems  much 
more  like  a  plant  than  does  Corallina,  but  it  is  really  animal,  a  hydroid. 
The  Corallinas  are  small  jointed  plants  and  are  very  brittle  when 
dried,  because  of  the  amount  of  lime  they  contain.  Like  the  Gigar- 
tinas, these  plants  show  the  presence  of  chlorophyll-  as  the  red  pig- 
ment fades.  The  use  of  the  joints  to  the  Corallina  and  the  fine  dissec- 
tions to  the  Plocamium  and  other  red  sea  moss  can  be  thought  out. 

With  the  microscope  many  interesting  facts  of  cellular  structure 
can  be  shown.  The  filamentous  Algae  consists  of  rows  of  cells  ;  the 
very  thin  fronds  have  their  cells  arranged  in  but  one  or  two  layers. 
A  section  through  some  of  the  thicker  fronds,  like  the  rock  weed, 
shows  cells  irregularly  netted  or  interwoven,  compactly  at  the  outside 
but  very  loosely  within,  a  structure  which  is  obviously  adapted  to  the 
environment  of  the  plants.  If  it  seems  best  to  the  teacher,  some  facts 
of  reproduction  may  be  taught,  but  they  must,  in  elementary  work, 
be  taken  mainly  on  authority.  The  marine  green  Algae  reproduce  by 
zoospores.  Many  brown  Algae,  and  all  red  Algae  also  reproduce 
assexually,  i.  e.,  by  simple  cell  division  into  spores,  either  zoospores  or 
non-motile  spores.  But  some  brown  Algae,  rock  weed  and  sea  oak  for 

9 


SUPPLEMENT 

instance,  have  a  higher  method  of  reproduction.  Within  the  concep- 
tacles,  visible  as  dots  to  the  unaided  eye,  are  antheridia  containing 
minute  fertilizing  or  sperm  cells,  and  oogonia  containing  much  larger 
egg  cells.  A  sperm  cell  and  an  egg  cell  unite  to  form  a  strong  spore. 
Red  Algae  have  also  a  higher  form  of  reproduction,  As  the  result  of 
the  union  of  two  unlike  cells  there  grow  spore  fruits.  These  spore 
fruits  are  conspicuous  on  the  Gigartinas,  and  are  frequently  found  on 
other  red  Algae.  The  growth  of  new  Algae  from  fragments  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Reader. 


10 


CHAPTER   II. 


HOW  SOnE  PLANTS  BEGIN  LIFE. 

The  first  aim  of  this  chapter  is  to  develop  some  fundamental  facts 
in  the  physiology  of  higher  plants.  There  are  also  several  minor 
reasons  for  taking  up  work  with  seedlings  in  the  autumn.  There  is 
more  time  for  it,  since  there  is  less  out  of  door  plant  life  clamoring  for 
attention  ;  the  temperature  is  favorable,  and  children  can  be  prepared 
to  enjoy  the  native  seedlings  that  the  rains  bring.  The  seeds  do  best 
planted  in  sand  in  wooden  boxes.  The  sand  should  be  kept  moist 
but  not  wet. 

An  idea  to  be  emphasized  from  the  first  is  that  the  seed  is  a  little 
plant  with  its  equipment  of  food  for  beginning  life  by  itself.  The 
castor  bean  seems  to  me  to  illustrate  this  idea  more  forcibly  than  any 
of  the  other  common  seeds.  The  ideas  of  seed  protection  and  seed 
distribution  are  made  only  incidental  here  ;  they  should  be  impressed 
throughout  the  year,  but  the  early  summer  affords  the  most  striking 
illustrations.  The  poisonous  quality  of  the  castor  bean  is  well  estab- 
lished by  medical  records.  The  seeds  are  sometimes  fatal  to  man, 
and  I  have  not  been  able  to  find  that  any  animals  eat  them.  The 
violent  expulsion  of  the  seeds  is  likely  to  occur  on  sunny  days  follow- 
ing a  dense  fog  or  a  rain.  Mature  seed  vessels,  moistened  and  then 
kept  is  a  sunny  place  in  the  school  room,  are  pretty  sure  to  throw 
some  of  their  seeds,  but  even  out  of  doors  many  of  the  seeds  are  dis- 
missed gently  and  fall  near  the  parent  plant. 

The  structure  of  the  seed  is  most  easily  taught  by  beginning  with 
germinating  seeds  and  then  comparing  them  with  unsprouted  ones. 
It  is  best  to  keep  the  seeds  in  water  about  twenty- four  hours  before 
dissecting  them,  and  the  hard  seed  coat  should  be  cracked  with  a 
hammer.  The  castor  bean  has  also  a  distinct  inner  seed  coat,  but 
this  is  hardly  worth  noticing,  particularly  as  it  is  not  present  in  all 
the  other  seeds.  An  ovule  before  fertilization  has  an  opening  to  the 
embryo  sac  through  which  the  pollen  grains  enter.  This  orifice  is 
called  the  micropyle,  and  through  it  the  radicle  forces  its  way  even 

11 


SUPPLEMENT 

when  it  has  become  closed  by  the  seed  coats.  The  knob  at  one  end 
of  the  castor  bean  is  the  thickened  edge  of  the  micropyle  and  it 
becomes  an  excellent  absorbing  organ. 

It  may  seem  petty  to  distinguish  between  the  root  and  stem  in  the 
embryo,  but  it  is  well  to  note  from  the  first  that  leaves  are  borne  by 
stems,  not  by  roots,  and  that  roots  grow  from  stems,  not  stems 
from  roots.  The  technical  terms  for  seed  leaves,  stem  and 
root,  have  been  omitted  until  later  on  in  the  chapter  in  order  that  the 
real  nature  of  the  parts  be  not  obscured.  In  fact  it  is  only  in  deference 
to  custom  that  they  have  been  introduced  at  all  in  such  an  elementary 
work.  The  castor  bean  seedling  early  gives  off  side  roots  at  the  end 
of  the  stem,  usually  in  four  groups,  each  group  from  a  pair  of  woody 
fibres,  as  can  be  seen  from  a  cross  section  of  the  stem.  The  fact  that 
the  growing  cotyledons  absorb  the  food,  both  for  themselves  and  for 
the  rest  of  the  embryo,  seems  to  me  to  be  clearly  illustrated  by  the 
natural  development  of  the  seedling,  but  the  endosperm  may  be 
removed  from  one  of  two  seedlings  of  equal  size  and  the  result  noted  ; 
or  thiu  experiment  may  be  performed  with  any  of  the  other  seedlings. 
Obviously  some  of  the  stored  food  is  in  the  form  of  oil,  and  unless  the 
teacher  takes  special  care,  this  fact  will  be  recorded  in  grease  spots 
on  the  floor.  The  oil  of  the  castor  bean,  like  starch  that  forms  the 
bulk  of  corn,  wheat  and  many  other  seeds,  is  not  nitrogenous,  but  all 
seeds  have  also  some  albuminous  or  proteid  substance.  This  is  neces- 
sary since  the  living  and  growing  parts  of  all  plants  as  well  as  animals 
contain  much  proteid  material.  The  endosperm  of  the  castor  bean  is, 
in  reality,  as  well  as  in  appearance,  similar  to  cheese,  but  it  is  hardly 
practicable  to  test  proteid  substances  in  elementary  work.  Oily  seeds 
do  not  decay  so  readily  as  starchy  ones,  but  they  germinate  more 
slowly.  Still  the  castor  bean  gets  well  above  ground  in  three  or  four 
weeks.  Some  observing  pupil  may  notice  the  glands  at  the  base  of 
the  castor  bean  cotyledons.  These  are  very  marked  in  the  mature 
plant  and  will  be  referred  to  later  on. 

Pine  seeds  are  introduced  mainly  because  of  the  attractiveness  of 
both  cones  and  seedlings.  Seeds  of  the  Monterey  pine  (Pinus 
insignis)  can  be  had  at  seed  stores.  They  germinate  almost  as  rapidly 
as  the  castor  bean.  Pinons  are  difficult  to  grow  and  require  much 
time.  Cone-bearers  will  be  taken  up  again  in  Chapters  VIII  and 
XIII.  They  constitute  an  interesting  family  and  have  a  marked 
individuality.  John  Burroughs  brings  out  this  idea  charmingly  in 
"  A  Spray  of  Pine,"  in  "  Signs  and  Seasons." 

Children  may  be  led  to  trace  the  other  seeds  suggested  back  to  their 
plant  homes  and  to  note  their  devices  for  protection  and  distribution, 

12 


CHAPTER    II 

but  cultivated  plants,  that  is,  plants  that  have  been  propagated  artifi- 
cially, are  usually  not  so  well  adapted  to  care  for  themselves  as  native 
plants  or  hardy  weeds.  On  the  other  hand,  plants  that  are  prized 
because  of  the  food  stored  in  their  seeds  grow  rapidly  ;  so  the  time- 
honored  bean  or  pea  and  corn  are  not  likely  to  be  supplanted  for 
school  room  uses.  The  morning  glory  is  suggested  because  the 
embryo  has  cotyledons  even  more  leaf-like  than  the  castor  bean  ;  but 
the  seed  is  so  small  that  the  seedlings  are  slow  to  develop  the  next 
leaves.  The  difference  between  seeds  with  and  without  endosperm 
is  by  no  means  a  fundamental  one.  The  common  bean  and  the 
squash  cotyledons  have  simply  absorbed  the  seed  food  before  enter- 
ing on  the  resting  stage ;  the  cotyledon  of  the  castor  bean  and  corn 
absorb  it  during  germination. 

Nasturtium  seeds  are  very  easily  grown  in  the  school  room  in  our 
climate.  Ivike  the  pea,  they  keep  their  seed  leaves  underground, 
though  they  do  not  seem  to  need  this  protection  so  much  since  their 
pungent  taste  probably  protects  them  from  the  attacks  of  animals. 
The  wrinkled  coat  of  the  nasturtium  seed  helps  to  anchor  it  so  that 
the  radicle  more  easily  penetrates  the  soil.  The  glutinous  envelope  of 
squash  seeds  serves  the  same  purpose  ;  so  do  the  hooks  of  the  bur 
clover,  for  the  seeds  usually  remain  in  the  bur.  Acorn  and  walnut 
seedlings  always  appeal  to  children.  The  uses  of  the  cotyledons  of 
the  acorn  should  be  developed.  They  protect  the  rest  of  the  embryo 
and  liberate  it  from  the  shell,  besides  supplying  it  with  food.  The 
walnut  cotyledons  contain  much  oil  and  the  seeds  are  well  protected. 
On  the  tree  the  "shells "  or  ovary  walls  are  an  inconspicuous  green 
color  and  are  extremely  bitter  ;  later,  on  the  ground  the  shells  are 
again  the  color  of  their  environment  and  are  still  troublesome  to 
marauders. 

The  corn  seedling  presents  some  difficulties,  but  it  is  so  convenient 
for  use  in  experiments  that  it  is  introduced  here.  A  considerable 
quantity  should  be  grown  for  use  in  connection  with  the  next  chapter. 
Children  need  not  be  told  that  the  kernel  is  ovary  as  well  as  seed,  and 
that  some  botanists  call  the  absorptive  organ  the  scutellum.  The 
main  point  is  that  they  understand  the  functions  of  the  parts.  As 
children  become  interested  in  growing  seedlings  they  are  likely  to 
make  interesting  discoveries.  They  may  find  barley  heads  with  every 
seed  germinating  in  its  husk,  or  seeds  germinating  inside  lemons  or 
squashes,  and  they  will  see  that  the  lemon  seeds  have  several  embryos 
within  one  seed  coat.  They  will  soon  learn  to  recognize  common 
out-of-door  seedlings  like  the  filaree,  malva,  bur-clover,  grasses, 
mustard,  nettles,  geraniums,  marigolds,  etc.  The  little  arrow-head 

13 


SUPPLEMENT 

cotyledons  of  the  malva  along  our  waysides  may  be  as  welcome  as 
heralds  of  our  green  season  as  is  the  first  robin's  note  to  our  Eastern 
friends.  Lesson  V  in  the  Reader  assumes  that  the  teacher  will 
encourage  pupils  to  observations  of  this  sort.  It  is  specially  urged 
that  much  attention  be  paid  to  plants  encountered  every  day,  to  way- 
side plants  like  the  filaree  and  bur-clover.  The  very  fact  that  these 
two  introduced  plants  have  gained  such  a  foothold  in  our  state  proves 
that  they  have  many  traits  worth  studying.  But  the  great  point  to  be 
gained,  is  the  feeling  that  there  is  a  world  of  interest  in  common 
things. 

Much  of  the  physiology  of  seedlings  must  be  taken  on  authority  in 
elementary  school  work.  But  there  are  many  simple  experiments 
that  require  little  time  or  apparatus.  If  scales  or  balances  are 
available,  the  amount  of  water  seeds  absorb  in  a  given  time  can  be 
tested,  or  the  teacher  can  devise  other  means  for  measuring  the  water 
used.  Many  seeds  germinate  readily  in  moist  air.  The  development 
of  these  seedlings  can  be  very  clearly  seen  ;  they  show  root-hairs  and 
root-tips  beautifully  and  lend  themselves  to  many  experiments.  A 
moist  air  chamber  is  made  by  simply  putting  pieces  of  wet  blotting 
paper  in  any  convenient  dish  and  keeping  it  rather  closely  covered. 
A  piece  of  glass  is  a  convenient  cover  because  the  seedlings  can  be 
watched  without  letting  the  moist  air  escape.  The  seeds  should  be 
soaked,  then  simply  laid  on  top  of  the  paper.  They  germinate  better 
in  the  dark  as  can  be  shown  by  keeping  one  of  two  dishes  covered 
with  a  piece  of  black  cloth.  In  the  experiment  of  determining  where 
the  growth  of  the  root  takes  place,  common  pen  and  ink  may  be  used. 
Notice  that  no  matter  how  the  seeds  are  placed  on  the  paper  the  roots 
always  point  downward.  To  show  that  this  is  not  due  solely  to  the 
moist  substratum,  pin  seedlings  to  a  cork  after  the  radicle  has  first 
broken  through,  and  keep  the  apparatus  in  a  moist  air  chamber.  Bell 
jars  or  any  wide-mouthed  glass  vessels  are  very  convenient  for  use  in 
experiments  with  seedlings.  Wheat  grows  prettily  on  a  sponge 
placed  over  a  glass  of  water  when  the  whole  is  covered  so  as  to  keep 
the  air  moist.  Mustard  seeds  grow  very  quickly  on  a  piece  of  gauze 
stretched  over  a  glass  full  of  water,  the  whole  covered  with  a  large 
glass  vessel.  If  one  side  of  the  apparatus  is  kept  light  and  the  other 
darkened,  the  stems  grow  toward  the  light  and  the  roots  away  from 
it  in  a  very  striking  way. 

Any  seedlings  enclosed  in  a  fruit  jar  will  illustrate  transpiration. 
To  make  sure  that  the  moisture  is  given  off  through  the  epidermis  of 
the  leaves  and  stems,  the  cut  ends  of  the  stems  should  be  sealed  with 
wax  or  gum  of  some  sort.  Corn  leaves  transpire  so  rapidly  that  the 


CHAPTER    II 

moisture  from  them  appears  on  the  sides  of  the  jar  in  a  few  minutes. 
A  piece  of  polished  marble  in  the  bottom  of  a  box  of  growing  seed- 
lings will  become  etched  by  the  acid  secretion  from  the  root-hairs. 
Probably  these  simple  experiments  with  the  deductions  to  be  drawn 
from  them  will  occupy  as  much  time  as  the  plant  lessons  are  entitled 
to  in  primary  schools.  The  teacher  who  can  find  time  for  more  will 
find  them  suggested  in  the  more  recent  books  mentioned  in  the  pre- 
face, particularly  in  Bergen  and  Oels. 

As  soon  as  seeds  absorb  moisture  the  insoluble  stored  food  is 
changed  to  soluble  forms,  and  other  chemical  changes  that  always 
accompany  growth  and  nutrition  occur.  As  stated  in  the  supplement 
to  the  first  chapter,  these  chemical  changes  require  oxidation,  that  is, 
the  plant  respires.  Higher  plants  have  not,  like  higher  animals, 
special  organs  for  respiration,  but  the  process  is  going  on  over  the 
whole  of  the  plant  throughout  its  existence.  Whether  the  respira- 
tion of  plants  should  be  taught  in  the  grammar  grades  seems  to  me 
very  questionable.  The  experiments  bearing  on  this  subject  require 
some  knowledge  of  chemistry  and  are  not  likely  to  be  comprehended. 
Respiration,  too,  is  to  a  considerable  extent  the  reverse  of  photo- 
synthesis, and  if  there  is  an  attempt  to  teach  both  processes  the  whole 
subject  becomes  confusing. 

Of  the  experiments  suggested  above,  by  far  the  most  impressive  one 
is  growing  corn  in  moist  air.  The  root-tips  and  root-hairs  are  beauti- 
fully distinct.  The  teacher  has  only  to  remember  that  the  root-hairs 
are  so  delicate  that  they  shrink  after  a  few  minutes  of  exposure  to  dry 
air.  The  relation  of  the  number  of  hairs  to  the  plant's  facilities  for 
obtaining  moisture  is  very  interesting.  The  mustard  seeds  germinat- 
ing on  gauze,  and  the  wheat  on  the  sponge,  produce  very  striking 
root-hairs  so  long  as  they  are  in  contact  with  moist  air  only,  but  when 
the  roots  have  reached  the  water  in  the  glass  they  cease  entirely  to 
develop  hairs;  that  is,  root-hairs  are  abundant  so  long  as  moisture  is 
difficult  to  obtain,  but  they  are  obviously  unnecessary  to  roots 
immersed  in  water.  By  actual  count  there  are  from  ten  to  four 
hundred  root-hairs  per  square  millimeter.  Root-hairs  on  plants  grown 
in  the  soil  become  very  firmly  united  with  it,  so  that  it  is  impossible 
to  entirely  shake  off,  or  even  wash  off,  adherent  particles.  This  adhe- 
sion is  due  partially  to  the  solvent  acid  of  the  hairs,  but  it  is  also 
because  of  the  avidity  of  their  cell  contents  for  the  molecules  of  water 
adhering  to  molecules  of  the  soil.  The  absorbent  cells  must  be  able 
to  extract  considerable  water  from  soil  that  appears  dry.  Root-hairs 
perish  on  the  older  parts  of  roots,  but  there  is  always  a  zone  of 
absorbent  cells  just  back  of  the  tip. 

15 


SUPPLEMENT 

The  teacher  must  make  sure  that  the  root  marking  experiment  is 
thoroughly  comprehended.  The  marks  are  at  first  equidistant,  but 
the  mark  on  the  tip  is  carried  further  and  further  on,  while  the  others 
remain  exactly  as  they  were.  If  roots  were  to  grow  throughout  their 
length  through  the  unyielding  soil  they  would  necessarily  become 
much  distorted.  The  root-tip  is  protected  by  a  little  cap  that  is 
renewed  as  fast,  as  it  is  worn  away  by  friction.  The  remarkable 
properties  of  root-tips  are  treated  at  length  by  Darwin  in  his  "  Power 
of  Movement  in  Plants."  In  his  enthusiasm  over  the  results  of  his 
experiments  with  seedlings  he  says  :  "  It  is  hardly  an  exaggeration  to 
say  that  the  tip  of  the  radicle,  thus  endowed,  and  having  the  power  to 
direct  the  movements  of  the  adjoining  parts,  acts  like  the  brain  of 
one  of  the  lower  animals  ;  the  brain  being  seated  within  the  anterior 
end  of  the  body,  receiving  impressions  from  the  sense-organs,  and 
directing  the  several  movements."  Some  German  critics  consider 
this  an  extravagant  statement,  but  one  of  them,  Sachs,  in  his 
"  Physiology  of  Plants,"  explicitly  states  that  the  end  of  the  root  is 
sensitive  to  pressure  and  to  moist  surfaces,  and  that  as  a  result  the 
root  curves  so  as  to  avoid  the  obstacle  and  reach  the  moist 
substratum. 

The  tendency  of  the  main  root  to  grow  directly  downward  can  be 
easily  shown  by  pinning  seedlings  to  cork  in  the  moist  air  chamber 
so  that  light  and  moisture  are  everywhere  equal.  The  roots  of  seed- 
lings grown  on  gauze,  or  on  a  sponge  over  water,  clearly  grow  away 
from  the  light.  Experiments  to  show  the  spiral  movement  and  sensi- 
tiveness to  moisture  and  pressure  require  more  time  and  apparatus. 

The  padding  of  roots,  which  protects  them  against  evaporation 
and  mechanical  injury,  can  also  be  noted  here.  The  natural  length  of 
roots  will  not  be  very  accurately  determined  from  seedlings  grown  in 
shallow  dishes.  Wheat,  out  of  doors,  has  been  known  to  send  down 
roots  to  a  depth  of  seven  feet,  and  the  sum  total  of  the  length  of  all 
the  roots  of  an  oat  plant  is  sometimes  as  much  as  one  hundred  and 
fifty  feet.  Seeds  grown  in  a  crowded  condition  show  the  power  of 
roots  to  bind  soil  together  so  that  it  will  resist  the  force  of  wind  or 
rain.  But  the  main  point  here  is  to  emphasize  the  great  extent  of 
the  absorbing  surface  furnished  by  this  elaborate  root  system,  that  is, 
its  capacity  for  taking  in  food. 

Some  of  the  minerals  needed  by  all  plants  are  potassium,  sodium, 
calcium,  sulphur,  magnesium,  phosphorus  and  iron.  The  proportions 
of  the  minerals  required  vary  with  different  plants  as  every  agricul- 
turist knows,  but  by  striking  an  average,  these  salts,  with  necessary 
gases,  can  be  artificially  combined  into  a.  nutritive  solution  in  which 


CHAPTER   II 

plants  will  grow  to  maturity,  whereas  seedlings  grown  in  pure  water 
perish  soon  after  the  food  in  the  seed  is  exhausted.  Further  experi- 
ments show  that  the  presence  of  iron  is  necessary  to  the  formation  of 
chlorophyll  ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  nitrogen  is  a  constituent  of 
protoplasm.  Now,  although  nitrogen  forms  a  large  percentage  of  the 
air,  experiments  seem  to  prove  that  it  is  of  service  to  plants  only 
when  it  enters  in  combination  with  other  substances.  So  the  nitro- 
gen required  by  plants  is  absorbed  mainly  from  the  ground,  though 
sometimes  from  the  air,  and  it  is  in  the  form  of  nitrates  or  of  com- 
pounds of  ammonia.  Nitric  acid  and  ammonia  arise  from  the  decay 
and  oxidation  of  dead  organic  matter,  and  since  all  putrefaction  is 
due  to  bacteria,  we  may  say  that  nitrogen  is  prepared  for  the  plants 
by  bacteria  in  the  soil. 

Corn  and  castor  bean  seedlings  are  excellent  for  illustrating  the 
ascent  of  crude  sap,  but  their  own  red  pigment  should  be  located 
before  the  red  ink  is  used.  The  natural  pigment  is  in  or  near  the 
epidermal  cells,  where  it  is  supposed  by  some  botanists  to  serve  as  a 
screen;  the  artificially  colored  fluid  will  always  travel  by  way  of  the 
woody  tissue.  Of  course  for  higher  work  more  accurate  experiments 
than  this  have  been  devised  for  showing  this  function  of  woody  tissue. 
The  fact  of  the  existence  of  this  woody  system,  characteristic  of 
higher  plants,  is  perfectly  apparent  in  seedlings,  but  its  full  signifi- 
cance and  the  reasons  why  lower  plants  can  do  without  it,  need  not 
be  discussed  here. 

The  cellular  structure  of  stems  is  far  too  complex  a  subject  to  be 
treated  fully  in  an  elementary  work,  but  it  will  be  again  referred  to 
in  Chapter  VIII.  Drawing  No.  2,  Fig.  10,  which  is  of  course  partly 
diagramatic,  is  introduced  here  only  to  emphasize  the  division  of 
labor  among  different  kinds  of  cells.  This  conductive  tissue  of  wood 
cells  and  vessels  extends  to  the  farthest  tips  of  the  leaves.  The  epi- 
dermis of  the  leaves  serves  for  protection  and  prevents  excessive 
evaporation.  It  has  a  cuticle  that  is  almost  impervious  to  water. 
The  moisture  that  is  given  off  by  leaves  escapes  mainly  through  the 
pores  or  stomata,  and  the  two  guard  cells  of  the  stomata,  by  separat- 
ing or  closing,  regulate  the  amount  of  transpiration.  The  typical 
horizontal  leaf  has,  within  the  epidermis,  palisade  cells  on  the  upper 
side  and  spongy  tissue  beneath;  that  is,  the  upper  cells  are  little 
cylinders  compactly  arranged  and  at  right  angles  with  the  epidermis; 
below,  the  cells  are  so  loosely  arranged  that  there  are  many  air  pas- 
sages that  communicate  with  the  outside  world  through  the  stomata. 
These  intercellular  canals  also  convey  the  moisture  that  is  evaporated 
from  the  cells. 

2  17 


SUPPLEMEN7 

And  now  we  must  consider  the  problem  of  how  the  current  of  water 
with  its  freight  is  raised  from  the  root-hairs  to  these  cells  in  the  leaves, 
and  the  more  one  looks  into  investigations  on  this  subject  and  reads 
the  various  conclusions  and  theories  of  leading  botanists,  the  less  is 
the  inclination  to  offer  any  solution  of  the  problem  to  children. 
The  old  theory  of  capillarity  seems  to  be  quite  abandoned.  The  laws 
of  the  diffusion  of  fluids  and  gases  separated  by  a  membrane,  such  as 
a  cell  wall,  perhaps  explain  the  great  avidity  of  cells  for  water, espec- 
ially of  cells  containing  stored  food  and  active  protoplasm.  At  any 
rate  the  water  of  the  soil  is  drawn  in  by  the  root-hairs  and  forced  on 
by  contiguous  cells,  and  the  force  is  named  root  pressure.  Root 
pressure  is  supposed  to  account  for  the  rise  of  sap  in  maple  trees  in 
the  spring,  the  "  weeping"  of  cut  grape  vines,  the  drops  of  moisture 
often  apparent  on  corn  or  wheat  seedlings,  and  the  gush  of  sap  from 
the  cut  leaves  of  the  agave  and  other  plants  of  arid  regions.  This 
force  is  most  active  when  stored  food  is  being  rapidly  used  in  new 
growth.  Apparatus  has  been  devised  for  measuring  this  force,  and  the 
results  can  be  found  in  any  text  book  that  treats  to  any  extent  of 
plant  physiology. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  evaporation  from  the  leaves  is 
a  great  lifting  power.  That  is,  the  water  given  off  by  evaporating 
cells  near  the  su/face  is  replaced  by  diffusion  from  adjacent  cells, 
these  in  turn  draw  on  cells  below,  and  so  on.  In  this  way  an  ascend- 
ing transpiration  current  arises.  It  seems  to  be  quite  proven  that  the 
ascending  current  is  mainly  through  the  walls  of  the  wood  cells  and 
vessels,  rather  than  through  their  cavities;  and  theories  have  been 
advanced  to  meet  this  and  other  phenomena.  After  all,  the  main 
point  is  that  nutritive  salts  and  nitrogen  provided  in  the  soil  do  reach 
the  laboratory  cells  in  the  leaves  where  they  can  be  combined  with 
the  organic  material  manufactured  there. 

This  manufacturing  of  organic  matter  from  carbon  dioxide  and 
water,  or  photo-synthesis,  has  perhaps  been  already  sufficiently  empha- 
sized. As  stated  in  the  Reader,  carbonic  acid  gas  is  absorbed  directly 
from  the  air;  in  the  epidermal  cells  it  has  become  carbonic  acid  and 
the  acid  is  absorbed  and  decomposed  mainly  by  the  protoplasm  of 
the  palisade  cells.  The  oxygen  is  of  course  given  off  through  cell 
walls  into  intercellular  passages  and  thence  through  the  stomata  to 
the  outside  world.  The  first  product  of  photo-synthesis  is  not  well 
understood,  and  since  in  most  plants  it  becomes  visible  first  in  the 
form  of  starch  in  the  chloroplasts,  many  teachers  think  best  in  ele- 
mentary work  to  simply  call  the  product  starch  and  the  process 
starch-making. 

18 


CHAPTER   II 

The  subject  of  metabolism,  that  is,  of  the  farther  transformations 
of  primary  organic  substances,  and  the  fact  of  respiration,  have  been 
referred  to  already.  Gels'  "  Experimental  Plant  Physiology  "  sug- 
gests many  experiments  under  this  head.  Kerner,  in  Vol.  I,  Part  2f 
of  his  "Natural  History  of  Plants,"  classifies  these  products  as  fol- 
lows : — under  building  materials  as  albumens  (albumen,  casein 
fibrin,  etc.),  cellulose  (changed  sometimes  to  lignin  or  cork)  and 
starch  (a  mixture  of  cellulose  and  granulose) ;  and  under  accessory 
substances,  pigments,  including  chlorophyll,  sweet-tasting  substances, 
oils,  resins,  balsams,  fats,  alkaloids  (nicotine,  quinine,  etc.),  gluco- 
sides  (saponin,  tannin,  etc.),  organic  acids,  organic  salts,  amides  and 
ferments.  But  the  subject  seems  hardly  suitable  for  children.  They 
can  of  course  think  of  various  plant  products,  and  can  reason  out  the 
fact  that  the  building  materials  originating  in  the  leaves  must  be 
transported  to  any  part  of  the  plant  requiring  food  or  acting  as  a 
store-house.  So  it  becomes  apparent  that,  besides  the  ascending  cur- 
rent of  raw  material,  there  is  also  a  stream  carrying  organic  food, 
whose  direction  is  in  the  main  downward.  The  movement  of  this 
stream  is  explained  by  the  law  of  diffusion.  As  any  cell  uses  up 
material,  the  same  material  will  be  at  once  replaced  from  a  contigu- 
ous cell,  which  cell  repairs  losses  from  the  next  cell  and  so  on.  The 
sets  of  cells  through  which  this  distributing  current  passes  will  be 
referred  to  in  the  supplement  to  Chapter  VIII.  when  the  subject  of 
the  division  of  labor  among  the  cells  will  be  further  emphasized.  The 
fact  that  metabolism  and  growth  go  on  even  better  in  darkness  seems 
to  be  thoroughly  established  by  means  of  experiments.  It  is  found 
that  the  greatest  daily  growth  is  usually  just  before  sunrise. 


19 


SUPPLEMENT 


CHAPTER  III. 


PLANTS  THAT  KNOW   HOW  TO    MEET   HARD  TlflES. 

The  aim  of  this  chapter  is  to  develop  the  adaptation  of  plants  to  a 
warm,  dry  climate.  Another  chapter  will  deal  with  plants  that  spring 
up  under  reverse  conditions,  that  is,  with  plenty  of  moisture  but  a 
limited  amount  of  heat.  As  some  knowledge  of  the  relations  between 
climate  and  vegetation  underlies  all  intelligent  study  of  geography, 
this  feature  of  plant  study  seems  especially  important. 

The  first  point  to  be  emphasized  is  the  paramount  necessity  for 
water  in  plant  economy.  Water  itself  is  a  building  material  ;  it 
enters  into  all  substances  that  compose  a  plant ;  it  is  also  necessary 
as  a  solvent  for  other  building  material  ;  besides  this,  the  transpira- 
tion current  is  the  main  propelling  power.  If  children  have  not 
been  set  to  thinking  of  water  in  the  soil  and  of  evaporation  in  con- 
nection with  their  geography,  this  should  be  done  now.  They  usually 
know  that  as  we  dig  down  we  come  to  moist  earth.  Perhaps  they 
know  that  in  California  stream  beds  there  is  often  water  below  the 
surface.  In  our  narrow  canons  and  on  steep  north  slopes  moisture  is 
usually  evident.  It  is  easy  to  show  the  relations  of  heat  and  dry  air 
to  evaporation  by  some  common  i. lustration,  such  as  the  drying  of 
clothes. 

It  will  be  well  if  the  teacher  can  supervise  the  collecting  of  these 
autumn  plants.  Happily  the  plan  of  spending  an  occasional  half- 
day  in  out-of-door  study  is  gaining  favor  in  our  schools.  In  this  case 
half  an  hour  in  a  vacant  lot  or  field  and  along  the  roadside  would  give 
an  impulse  to  the  collection,  but  if  a  visit  to  a  stream-bed  or  a  canon 
be  feasible  the  lesson  will  be  much  more  impressive.  In  the  suburbs 
of  Los  Angeles,  along  the  Arroyo  Seco,  all  of  the  plants  referred  to  in 
the  Reader,  and  many  others,  could  be  found  in  a  half-mile  walk.  In 
other  regions  the  flora  will  be  somewhat  different,  but  types  of  dry 
climate  vegetation  will  be  abundant.  If  there  are  no  native  plants  of 
the  fleshy  type,  use  the  cultivated  Sedums  (hen-and-chickens,  live- 
forever)  or  the  fleshy  plants  often  used  to  cover  our  grounds  and 

20 


CHAPTER   III 

parks  because  they  are  better  suited  to  our  climate  than  grass.  One 
prominent  group  of  ever-present  plants,  the  cosmopolitan  weeds  that 
flourish  on  the  outskirts  of  cultivation,  the  pig-weed,  cockle-bur, 
knot-grass,  sow-thistle,  Spanish-needle,  etc.,  have  received  little 
notice  here,  because  a  chapter  is  given  to  weeds  later  on.  But  this  is 
a  good  time  to  call  attention  to  them  and  to  see  that  their  names  are 
known,  so  that  in  the  course  of  the  year  the  children  will  become 
impressed  with  their  prevalence.  Of  course  it  is  not  necessary  to 
know  the  botanical  names  of  all  the  plants  handled,  but  if  the  teacher 
succeeds  at  all  in  fostering  children's  interest  in  plants  they  will  want 
many  names,  and  the  teacher  should  be  able  to  give  the  names  of  the 
native  trees  of  the  vicinity,  and  of  the  most  common  weeds  and  most 
attractive  shrubs  and  flowers — common  names  when  they  are  well 
established,  otherwise  the  botanical  generic  name. 

In  the  field  work,  the  dead  annuals  should  be  pointed  out,  and  there 
will  usually  be  some  woody  perennial  herbs  that  have  partly  died 
back.  The  perennials  that  perish  to  the  ground  will  be  noted  in  the 
next  chapter.  If  a  stream  is  visited,  water-cress  may  be  found  ;  note 
the  first  fact  that  the  pungent  taste  probably  does  not  recommend  the 
plant  to  animals  as  it  does  to  us.  Sometimes  very  bright  summer 
flowers  are  found  along  our  water-ways,  the  yellow  Mimulus  luteus 
with  its  brown  spotted  throat — the  children  may  call  it  snap-dragon 
— or  the  bright  red  Mimulus  cardinalis,  or  the  bur  marigold,  (Bidens 
chrysanthemoides)  a  large,  showy,  yellow  Composite.  If  the  stream  is 
in  a  narrow  canon  there  will  be  brakes  and  horsetails,  and  perhaps 
our  stately  Woodwardia  fern.  But  these  plants  do  not  really  belong 
to  the  type  we  are  studying  ;  they  are  water-loving  plants  and  should 
be  noted  here  only  on  account  of  their  individual  merits  and  by  way 
of  contrast.  The  wild  grape,  too,  grows  only  where  it  has  plenty  of 
water  and  so  can  afford  to  expose  its  leaves  as  fully  as  possible  to  the 
light.  It  forms  a  beautiful  illustration  of  leaf-mosaic,  but  this  topic 
belongs  to  the  next  chapter.  Of  course  the  clematis  fruits,  with  their 
beautiful  device  for  seed  distribution,  would  not  be  passed  without 
notice. 

Perhaps  the  poison  oak  and  nightshade  (Solanum)  are  hardy 
enough  to  be  classed  with  the  other  plants,  but  they,  the  poison  oak 
especially,  seek  shaded  places.  They  have  very  long  roots  with 
thickened  parts  that  store  moisture,  and  although  our  nightshades 
unlike  the  Kuropean  S.  ni^raum  are  not  poisonous  to  man,  and  some 
grazing  animals  can  eat  poison  oak;  on  the  whole  these  plants  seem 
to  be  little  molested  by  the  animal  world.  The  poison  oak  begins  its 
period  of  rest  in  autumn,  but  Solanum  Douglasii,  about  I/os  Angeles 

21 


SUPPLEMENT 

at  any  rate,  flowers  without  any  intermission.  The  California  holly 
(Heteromeles  arbutifolia]  has  leaves  typical  of  a  dry  climate. 

In  treating  the  topic  of  the  protection  of  plants  against  the  attacks 
of  animals,  it  is  easy  to  make  too  sweeping  statements.  Plants  that 
are  poisonous  to  some  animals  are  eaten  with  impunity  by  others, 
and  plants  sometimes  have  an  evil  reputation  in  this  respect  that  they 
do  not  deserve.  But  almost  any  locality  furnishes  some  illustrations 
of  this  device  for  protection.  In  many  parts  of  the  state  the  poison- 
ous Datura  meteloides,  sometimes  called  "Jimson  weed,"  is  common 
in  summer  and  autumn.  The  point  in  teaching  this  topic  is  to  arouse 
children's  interest  in  the  subject  so  that  they  will  compare  observa- 
tions, and  make  inquiries  about  the  supposed  poisonous  plants  in  their 
own  neighborhood.  A  taste  and  odor  that  is  disagreeable  to  us  may 
not  be  equally  so  to  grazing  animals  or  caterpillars.  Cows  often  eat 
bitter  herbs  that  make  their  milk  utterly  unpalatable  to  us.  On  the 
other  hand,  plants  that  seem  to  us  quite  inoffensive,  ferns  for  instance, 
seem  to  be  never  molested  by  animals.  Hunger  often  leads  animals 
to  devour  plants  that  are  so  rough  and  woody  as  to  appear  quite  safe  ; 
but  some  of  our  California  dry-season  plants  seem  to  have  rendered 
themselves  absolutely  inedible  by  these  means.  We  must  remember, 
too,  that  plants  do  not  need  to  be  absolutely  invulnerable  to  attack. 
If  they  can  protect  themselves  against  their  most  common  foes  they 
stand  a  good  chance  for  survival.  The  turkey-weed  {Eremocarpus 
setigera]  is  a  plant  that  sheep  refuse  to  eat  under  the  direst  necessity, 
a  fact  that  goes  far  toward  accounting  for  its  prevalence  in  many 
parts  of  California,  for  sheep  have  made  sad  havoc  with  our  native 
flora.  The  cactus  will  be  taken  up  later  on,  when,  it  is  hoped,  the 
children  will  have  acquired  the  habit  of  alertness  in  discovering 
plants'  devices  for  protection  against  animals. 

Plants  have  various  methods  of  protecting  chlorophyll  against  too 
much  light.  In  unscreened  leaves  the  chloroplasts  group  themselves 
against  the  sides  of  the  cells  in  order  to  avoid  intense  light.  This 
can  be  illustrated  by  fastening  dark  paper  over  part  of  such  a  leaf  on 
a  very  bright  day;  the  unilluminated  portion  of  the  leaf  will  be  darker, 
because  the  chloroplasts  are  near  the  upper  surface.  Desert  plants 
the  world  over  are  notably  grey,  and  plants  growing  in  the  glaring 
sand  along  the  sea  have  the  same  characteristics  in  a  lesser  degree. 
The  fact,  that  plants  do  breathe,  is  given  to  children  without  demon- 
stration, and  it  is  not  easy  to  prove  conclusively  that  dust  threatens 
plants  with  suffocation.  Of  course  they  ma}*  find  out  in  a  general 
way  that  plants  do  not  thrive  close  to  dusty  roads,  and  that  house 
plants  need  to  have  the  dust  washed  off  their  leaves  frequently. 

22 


CHAPTER   III 

The  devices  to  meet  the  danger  of  excessive  transpiration  are  the 
most  striking  features  of  our  dry-weather  plants.  By  all  means, 
emphasize  the  fact  of  transpiration  by  letting  the  children  perform 
the  experiments.  Ordinary  quart  fruit  jars  will  do,  and  if  rather  large 
quantities  of  plants  are  used,  the  weights  or  scales  need  not  be  very 
fine.  Of  course  metric  weights  are  best.  If  practicable,  have  the 
children  seal  the  stems  with  sealing  wax  or  grafting  wax.  These 
simple  experiments  do  not  give  very  definite  or  accurate  results,  but 
the  facts  that  leaves  exhale  varying  amounts  of  water  and  that  the 
epidermis  restricts  evaporation  are  clearly  shown.  Of  course  children 
can  be  taught  that  ordinarily  the  evaporation  of  water  from  plants  is 
invisible,  but  it  is  well  to  make  the  vapor  visible  by  using  the  closed 
jars.  On  a  warm  autumn  day  this  requires  less  than  ten  minutes. 
Evaporation  soon  ceases  in  the  jars  because  the  air  becomes  saturated, 
so  if  the  loss  of  water  is  to  be  determined  by  weight  the  plants  must 
be  exposed  to  dry  air. 

As  previously  stated,  water  escapes  from  leaves,  not  through  the 
epidermal  cells,  but  through  the  stomata,  which  are  outlets  from  the 
intercellular  passages.  Horizontal  leaves  have  usually  their  spongy 
tissue  and  stomata  on  the  lower  side,  an  arrangement  which  restricts 
evaporation  since  the  evaporating  tissue  is  not  exposed  to  so  much 
heat.  Vertical  leaves,  have  compact  palisade  tissue  on  both  faces, 
and  all  these  leaves  with  thick  cuticle  have  a  reserve  supply  of  water 
stored  in  the  epidermal  cells,  and  sometimes  in  several  layers  beneath 
them  ;  but  these  facts  can  be  shown  only  by  means  of  rather  skillful 
work  with  the  microscope. 

The  live  oak  seems  to  transpire  rather  freely,  but  it  is  not  very 
active  during  the  summer.  In  Southern  California  it  simply  matures 
its  acorns,  then  appears  dormant  for  several  months  ;  in  earl}7  spring 
the  new  leaves  come  out  with  a  sudden  burst.  The  Eucalyptus  seems 
never  to  intermit  its  activity.  The  extraordinary  avidity  of  its  roots 
for  water  makes  it  useful  in  lands  that  need  drainage,  as  well  as  in 
arid  regions.  In  some  species  its  habit  of  vertical  leaves  comes  with 
increasing  years,  the  leaves  on  young  trees  being  horizontal,  and  it  is 
very  interesting  to  watch  the  transition.  Many  of  our  native  shrubs 
have  leaves  of  the  same  type  as  the  oak,  so  have  some  common  intro- 
duced trees,  such  as  the  Magnolia  and  India-rubber ;  but  the  pepper 
tree,  and  the  many  acacias  have  practically  vertical  foliage.  There  is 
a  marked  tendency  to  vertical  leaves  in  other  native  shrubs  besides 
the  Manzanita.  Perhaps  the  fact  that  many  cone-bearing  trees  do  well 
in  our  climate  with  little  water  should  be  noted.  Their  leaves,  of 


23 


SUPPLEMENT 

course,  transpire  very  slowly,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  they  can  be 
retained  during  the  winter  in  cold  climates. 

The  cactus  is  a  type  of  plant  particularly  well  adapted  to  regions  of 
long  drought  for  it  can  remain  dormant  without  losing  its  parts, 
above  ground.  Its  roots  do  not  go  deep  but  they  are  many  and  long  ; 
so  during  the  rainy  season  the  plant  can  take  in  water  very  rapidly, 
make  its  periodical  growth,  and  store  enough  in  its  aqueous  tissue  to 
balance  all  the  evaporation  that  can  occur  through  its  restricted 
surface  during  the  drought.  The  plants  sometimes  look  thin  and 
starved  at  the  end  of  the  dry  season,  but  they  usually  survive.  A  full 
study  of  the  cactus  is  deferred  until  it  is  in  flower,  when  the  most 
common  species,  the  tuna  cactus,  will  have  true  leaves  also.  Century 
plants  and  Yuccas  are  of  the  same  type  as  the  cactus,  and  so  are  many 
other  desert  and  seaside  plants.  Introduced  plants  of  the  fleshy  type 
usually  flourish  in  our  climate.  The  Russian  thistle  is  an  apalling 
example  of  this  fact  in  some  parts  of  the  state.  It  should  be 
remarked  that  the  salts  dissolved  in  the  cell  contents  of  some  of  these 
plants  do  much  in  checking  transpiration. 

The  "wild  broom,"  (Uosackia  glabra  or  Lotus  glaber)  comes  near 
being  a  "switch  plant."  Switch  plants,  like  most  Cacti,  reduce 
transpiration  by  dispensing  with  leaves,  and  carry  on  food-making  in 
the  green  cells  of  the  stems,  but  they  have  numerous  slender,  woody 
stems  as  the  name  implies.  They  abound  in  many  desert  regions. 
One  plant  of  this  type,  Lepidospartum  squamatum,  a  strong-scented 
Composite,  is  common  in  the  sand  washes  of  Southern  California. 
Its  summer  leaves  are  mere  scales,  but  soon  after  the  rains,  it  puts  out 
ordinary  foliage  leaves  of  considerable  size. 

The  Eriogonums,  too,  are  plants  that  belong  to  arid  regions; 
they  are  found  only  in  Western  America.  The  one  pictured,  E. 
elongatum,  is  common  and  typical.  In  Southern  California  a  still 
more  common  one  is  E.fasdculatum,  a  valuable  bee  plant,  commonly 
known  as  wild  buckwheat.  It  begins  flowering  in  the  early  summer, 
and  will  be  referred  to  in  Chapter  XV.  Unlike  most  Eriogonums, 
this  one  has  many  leaves,  but  they  are  hard  and  small,  and,  as  the 
name  implies,  fascicled.  They  are  of  a  type  rather  common  in  arid 
regions,  more  common  in  regions  of  excessive  moisture,  and  particu- 
larly so  in  regions  where  these  conditions  exist  in  alternation.  They 
are  called  rolled  leaves  because  the  margins  of  the  leaf  roll  back  so 
as  to  leave  little  of  the  under  surface,  i.  e.,  the  stomata-bearing  sur- 
face, exposed  ;  the  under  surface  is  further  protected  by  felted  hairs. 

In  any  part  of  the  state  a  large  number  of  the  plants  of  this  autumn 
collection  will  belong  to  the  family  Compositse,  a  family  children 

24 


CHAPTER   III 

can  easily  learn  to  recognize  because  they  can  usually  see  that  what 
looks  like  a  flower  is  really  a  flower-cluster.  Plants  of  this  family  are 
difficult  to  identify,  and  the  teacher  need  not  worry  over  ignorance  in 
this  direction;  but  because  total  ignorance  of  names  gives  a  feeling  of 
insecurity,  the  generic  names  of  some  common  autumn  Compositse 
are  given  below.  Everlasting  plants  (Gnaphaliums]  take  their  popu- 
lar name  from  their  dry,  silvery  flowers  ;  their  leaves  are  usually 
very  strongly  scented  and  fleecy  ;  often  the  hair  is  denser  on  the 
lower  or  stomata-bearing  surface,  but  a  covering  of  this  sort  on  the 
upper  surface  also  is  useful  in  lowering  the  temperature  of  the  tran- 
spiring cells  within  the  leaves.  Tar-weed  is  a  name  applied  to 
plants  of  several  genera,  such  as  Madia,  Hemizonia,  and  Heterotheca, 
and  in  general  to  Compositse  that  are  strikingly  viscid  and  ill-scented. 
One  large  group  of  Compositae  is  characterized  by  milky  juice  and 
ligulate  or  strap-shaped  florets.  The  flower  represented  in  Fig.  13, 
Malacothriz  tenuifolia,  belongs  to  this  group.  The  plant,  in  Southern 
California,  often  grows  six  feet  or  more  high,  and  in  autumn  it  has  a 
very  grey,  lifeless  appearance,  except  for  the  beautiful  white,  pink- 
lined  flowers  that  are  open  part  of  the  day.  Stephanomeria  virgata 
resembles  this  in  general  appearance,  but  is  smaller  and  has  heads 
with  fewer  flowers  inclined  to  a  lavender  tint.  In  many  parts  of  the 
state  the  sage  brush  or  wormwood  (Artemisia] — "old  man,"  the 
children  may  call  it — abounds.  Among  the  hills  one  may  find  golden 
rod  (Solidago),  but  more  likely  allied  genera  (Aplopappus  and  Bige- 
lovia)  with  much  stiffer  habit,  asters  (either  Aster  or  Corethrogyne), 
the  pretty  Senecio  Douglasii>  with  large,  pale  yellow,  daisy-like 
flowers,  and  fleecy,  grey  foliage,  and  sun-flowers  (Helianthemum.) 
Along  streams  there  is  a  shrubby  herb,  Baccharis,  with  willow-like 
leaves  and  small  white  flower  heads,  and  so  on, — it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  give  anything  like  a  full  list.  From  this  list  the  introduced 
weeds,  mentioned  above,  are  omitted.  The  hoarhound — not  a  Com- 
posite— is  included  in  the  collection  because  of  its  striking  adapta- 
tion to  its  environment,  for  besides  its  bitter  taste  and  woolliness,  it 
has  wrinkled  leaves,  a  device  for  exposing  less  leaf  surface  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

The  turkey- weed  illustrates  at  least  five  uses  of  plant  hairs ; — for 
defense  (not  all  the  stellate  hairs  are  provided  with  little  daggers, 
only  those  situated  so  as  to  be  specially  effective),  for  protection 
against  light,  dust  and  excessive  transpiration,  and  finally  for  absorb- 
ing water  and  what  is  dissolved  in  it.  By  no  means  all  plant  hairs 
absorb  moisture  ;  very  often  they  are  filled  with  air,  and  water  enters 
them  with  difficulty.  Many  hairy  leaves,  after  immersion  in  water, 

25 


SUPPLEMENT 

can  be  easily  shaken  dry  and  have  not  increased  in  weight.  But  it 
seems  to  be  established  that  viscid  and  glandular  hairs  sometimes 
attract  water  to  a  marked  degree.  The  same  viscid  substance  which 
in  dry  air  acts  like  a  coat  of  varnish  and  prevents  evaporation,  in 
moist  air  may  actually  attract  the  water.  Kerner  states  that  the 
glandular  hairs  of  common  geraniums  absorb  water,  and  believes 
that,  with  the  water,  they  take  in  nitrogenous  compounds  and  even 
dissolved  mineral  salts.  In  the  geraniums  the  water  enters  the  termi- 
nal cells  of  the  hairs,  the  thickened  layer  of  the  cuticle  here  being 
discarded  ;  in  the  Eremocarpus  the  water  enters  the  cells  at  the  basis 
of  the  hairs  and  partially  drives  out  the  air  from  the  stellate  branches. 

The  castor  oil  plant,  which  is  such  a  flourishing  shrub  in  Southern 
California,  also  absorbs  water  through  its  foliage,  not  through  hairs 
but  probably  through  the  little  warts  and  cups  that  have  sometimes  a 
very  sticky  surface.  The  little  warts  are  under  the  teeth  of  the  leaves 
at  their  very  tips  ;  the  cups  are  at  the  basis  of  the  leaves  where  ribs 
converge,  and  along  stems,  always  on  the  upper  surface.  L,et  the 
children  see  for  themselves  that  dew,  fog  or  rain  collects  at  exactly 
these  places.  Let  them  also  immerse  the  blade,  not  the  cut  petiole, 
of  a  wilted  leaf  in  water  and  see  that  it  revives. 

Plant  No.  2,  Fig.  15,  Trichostema  lanceolatum,  is  sometimes  called 
blue-curls  because  of  its  long  exserted  stamens,  or  camphor  weed,  on 
account  of  the  odor,  or  flea-weed,  because  of  its  disagreeable  foliage. 
This  plant,  too,  seems  to  me  to  absorb  moisture  through  its  glandular 
hairs.  The  hairs  are  pictured  at  the  end  of  the  chapter.  The  flowers 
of  the  Trichostema  have  a  unique  method  of  reserving  their  honey 
for  bees.  The  slender  tube  of  the  corolla  is  bent  back  on  itself  at  such 
a  sharp  angle  that  only  a  very  minute  creature  could  turn  the  corner. 
But  a  large  bee,  one  with  >a  tongue  long  enough  to  reach  the  honey, 
clinging  to  the  lower  petals  is  heavy  enough  to  straighten  the  tube 
and  at  the  same  time  the  essential  organs  of  the  flower,  anthers  and 
stigmas,  are  brought  with  force  against  the  tip  of  the  bee's  body. 
In  the  younger  flowers  the  stigmas  are  not  mature,  but  the  open 
anthers  leave  a  goodly  supply  of  pollen  on  the  bee's  back.  When  he 
visits  an  older  flower,  as  in  the  picture,  the  stigmas  strike  this  pollen 
and  the  flower  is  cross-pollinated.  The  hive  bees  are  so  fond  of  the 
honey  that  they  will  often  be  found  searching  among  the  fallen 
corollas  in  the  dust  for  any  honey  that  may  remain  in  the  tube,  for 
hive  bees  seem  to  be  unable  to  exhaust  the  honey  from  the  flowers  on 
the  plant. 

The  other  plant  in  Fig.  15  is  Zauschneria  Californica,  var.  micro- 
phylla,  Gray.  As  it  belongs  to  the  fuchsia  family,  Onagracese,  its 

26 


CHAPTER   III 

common  name  is  more  suitable  than  these  names  often  are.  In 
Southern  California  only  the  variety,  the  form  having  small  woody 
leaves,  is  found  in  lower  altitudes,  but  in  the  mountains,  where  there 
is  more  moisture  and  leaves  can  afford  to  transpire  more  freely,  the 
type  with  the  larger  leaves  prevail.  The  flowers  are  types  of  those 
that  humming  birds  love  to  frequent.  They  are  vivid  scarlet,  and 
other  guests,  excepting  long-tongued  moths,  are  excluded  because  the 
honey  is  at  the  base  of  a  long  tube  with  a  marked  constriction  a  little 
above  the  base.  The  birds  can  usually  be  seen  visiting  the  flowers, 
except,  perhaps,  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  day.  As  can  be  seen 
from  the  picture,  they  strike  the  large,  rough  stigma  first  on  entering 
a  flower  ;  they  are  pretty  sure  to  pollinate  it  if  they  come  from  other 
fl  jwers,  for  the  pollen  coheres  in  considerable  masses  on  account  of 
the  cobweb-like  threads  among  the  grains  and  these  masses  are 
almost  sure  to  catch  on  the  bird's  bill  or  feathers.  If  the  children 
watch  the  flowers  they  may  find  that  they  do  not  altogether  depend 
upon  their  guests ;  the  little  masses  of  pollen  often  swing  down  so 
that  a  light  breeze  or  passing  object,  sometimes  their  own  fluffy  seeds, 
may  land  pollen  against  a  stigma.  Of  course  if  the  children  are 
studying  plants  for  the  first  time  this  subject  of  pollination  must  be 
deferred  until  later.  Considering  the  main  topic,  the  story  of  the 
pollination  of  these  two  flowers  is  quite  a  side  issue,  but  it  is  a  beauti- 
ful story  and  can  be  read  directly  from  Nature's  page. 

There  are  other  plants  of  the  dry  season  that  have  not  such  obvious 
devices  for  maintaining  the  balance  between  transpiration  and  water 
supply  as  the  plants  we  have  used  for  illustration.  This  is  especially 
true  of  some  introduced  weeds.  We  day  attribute  their  survival  to 
the  innate  hardiness  that  has  made  them  universal  weeds,  or  we  may 
see  some  explanation  in  their  long  and  often  thickened  roots,  or 
we  may  advance  the  theory  that  the  cell  sap  contains  substances  that 
lessen  evaporation,  but  the  fact  remains  that  often,  very  often,  we 
cannot  fully  explain  these  matters.  No  really  scientific  person  pro- 
fesses to  "  know  all  about  it,"  nor  is  he  deeply  chagrined  when  he 
finds  that  one  of  his  theories  must  be  abandoned.  It  is  very  unfor- 
tunate to  give  children  the  impression  that  all  of  Nature's  secrets  can 
be  discovered  by  a  superficial  glance.  But  this  is  no  reason  why  open 
secrets  should  not  be  noted  and  enjoyed. 

The  reasons  for  the  fall  of  the  leaves  of  native  California  trees  in 
autumn  are  not  easily  explained.  It  can  hardly  be  due  to  the  cooling 
of  the  soil,  for  at  just  this  time  the  rains  cause  a  general  bursting  into 
leaf  among  small  perennials,  and  even  some  large  shrubs  or  small 
trees,  like  the  Ribes  and  the  elder,  respond  at  once  to  the  new 

27 


SUPPLEMEN7 

moisture  in  the  soil.  In  the  valleys  of  Southern  California  the  foliage 
of  the  sycamores,  alders  and  cottonwoods  is  practically  functionless 
by  October  or  November,  but  the  leaves  do  not  always  fall  entirely  until 
after  the  new  ones  come  in  February  and  March.  The  alders  are  in 
full  flower  in  January.  Some  willows  and  the  elder  are  nearly  or 
quite  evergreen.  The  poison  oak  is  leafless  for  a  brief  period,  but  is 
often  in  leaf  again  before  January.  Introduced  deciduous  trees  take  a 
winter  rest,  but  the  leafless  period  is  shorter  than  in  our  .Eastern  States. 
Such  facts  as  these  can  be  observed,  although  a  theory  fitted  to  them 
may  not  be  at  hand.  Of  course  giving  the  name  periodicity  explains 
nothing.  There  is  really  much  of  interest  in  connection  with  the 
falling  of  leaves; — the  removal  of  the  carbohydrates,  and  the  various 
alterations  in  color  due  to  chemical  changes  that  accompany  their 
removal,  the  fact  that  the  falling  of  the  leaf  is  a  process  of  excretion, 
the  effect  on  the  soil,  etc.  Leaves  are  not  broken  off  leaving  a  raw 
surface  subject  to  injury,  but  a  layer  of  separation,  consisting  of 
corky  cells  that  separate  easily,  is  formed,  and  the  leaf  scar  is  water- 
proof from  the  first.  The  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  or  under 
the  petiole  in  the  sycamore,  should  be  noted.  In  short,  everything 
possible  should  be  done  to  foster  or  to  cultivate  in  California  children 
a  love  for  trees. 


28 


CHAPTER  IV. 


SOHE  PLANTS  THAT  DO  NOT  MAKE  THEIR  OWN  LIVING. 

This  chapter  deals  with  parasitic  and  saprophytic  plants  of  all 
ranks.  Of  course  any  real  study  of  bacteria  is  not  to  be  thought  of 
in  elementary  work  ;  but  although  the  subject  must  be  treated  purely 
in  an  information  way,  its  natural  interest  and  practical  bearings  seem 
to  justify  giving  it  some  attention.  Bacteria  are  very  minute  unicel- 
lular plants.  It  would  take  about  half  a  million  of  some  kinds  to 
cover  the  dot  of  an  "  i  "  on  this  page.  The  plants  reproduce  by  cell 
division  with  almost  incredible  rapidity.  It  has  been  estimated  that, 
under  favorable  circumstances,  one  plant  can  give  rise  to  sixteen 
millions  in  eight  hours.  This  fact  explains  the  rapid  progress  of 
some  germ  diseases,  the  cholera  for  instance.  Some  bacteria  form 
spores,  and  many  of  them  offer  considerable  resistance  to  adverse 
conditions.  Some  can  survive  even  freezing  or  boiling  temperatures 
and  very  long  periods  of  dessication.  The  universal  presence  of  bac- 
teria is  much  less  alarming  because  of  the  fact  that  many  species  are 
harmless. 

Bacteria  that  have  not  access  to  free  oxygen  in  the  air,  have  the 
power  of  obtaining  it  by  breaking  up  fluid  compounds  that  contain 
oxygen.  In  this  way  they  may  rob  the  blood  of  oxygen  and  bring 
about  other  decompositions  that  are  supposed  to  be  the  causes  of  some 
diseases.  Nature  seems  to  have  two  methods  for  counteracting  the 
effects  of  these  injurious  bacteria.  Animal  bodies  contain  cells  that 
can  digest  bacteria  ;  they  also  contain,  it  is  said,  certain  substances 
termed  defensive  proteids  that  can  destroy  bacteria  or  their  products. 
So  immunity  from  certain  diseases  can  be  secured  by  one  of  two  arti- 
ficial methods.  The  bacteria  that  cause  the  disease  can  be  cultivated 
until  there  results  what  is  called  an  attenuated  virus  ;  inoculation 
with  this  virus  leads  to  a  very  mild  form  of  the  disease  and  prevents 
a  virulent  attack.  The  other  method  is  to  introduce  the  defensive 
proteids  into  the  system. 

29 


SUPPLEMENT 

Bacteria  that  cause  diseases  enter  the  system  by  different  avenues, 
through  abrasions  of  the  skin  perhaps,  or  by  way  of  the  lungs  or  the 
alimentary  canal.  Because  our  state  is  to  such  an  extent  a  sanitar- 
ium for  consumptives,  it  is  well  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  chief 
danger  of  infection  is  from  bacilli  liberated  in  expectoration,  a  dan- 
ger that  can  be  met  by  proper  care  and  cleanliness.  Typhoid  fever 
arises  usually  only  when  the  germs  enter  the  alimentary  canal,  and 
is  therefore  a  preventable  disease. 

The  bacteria  that  cause  putrefaction  split  up  albuminoid  compounds 
into  various  gases  and  liquids.  In  the  earlier  stages  some  of  the  pro- 
ducts have  very  offensive  odors  ;  later  on  nitric  acid,  so  essential  to 
plant  life,  is  evolved.  The  unused  parts  of  carbo-hydrates  also  are 
returned  in  various  forms  to  the  surrounding  air  or  water.  There  are 
other  very  useful  bacteria  whose  presence  in  the  roots  of  leguminous 
plants  is  denoted  by  warts  or  tubercules.  They  are  apparent  even  in 
small  seedlings,  in  bur-clover  or  lupine  for  instance.  It  seems  to  be 
well  established  that  in  this  case  the  bacteria  can  fix  and  store  up 
free  nitrogen  for  the  use  of  the  higher  plants ;  that  is,  this  is  not  a 
case  of  parasite  and  host,  but  is  true  symbiosis.  The  souring  of  milk 
and  the  ripening  of  cream  are  also  due  to  bacteria.  There  are,  in 
common  daily  experience,  many  other  evidences  of  the  presence  of 
bacteria.  The  cloudiness  of  water  in  which  cut  plants  have  been 
standing  is  a  visible  evidence,  so  are  the  bright  red  spots  often  seen 
on  fermenting  starchy  foods. 

Yeast  plants  are  nearly  as  minute  as  bacteria,  and  their  study 
requires  high  powers  of  the  microscope.  They  split  up  grape  sugar 
into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide,  thus  causing  alcoholic  fermentation. 
They  can  reproduce  very  rapidly  by  a  process  called  budding,  sending 
off  little  sprouts  or  buds  that  break  off  and  become  independent 
plants.  The  facts  that  yeast  plants  have  another  method  of  repro- 
duction, and  that  their  affinities  are  doubtful,  need  not  be  discussed 
here. 

Mould  can  be  grown  with  very  little  trouble.  Bread  moistened  and 
closely  covered  will  grow  a  good  crop  in  four  or  five  days.  Usually 
the  growth  is  so  vigorous,  that  not  only  the  substratum  of  food,  but 
the  sides  of  the  dish  and  the  cover  as  well,  become  covered  with  tiny 
clusters  of  spore-bearing  stalks,  connected  by  runners.  These  clusters 
are  clearly  perceptible  without  even  a  lens,  for  the  stalks  are  several 
millimeters  long.  They  are  easily  handled,  and  a  low  power  of  the 
microscope  should  be  used.  It  is  best  to  mount  in  glycerine,  adding 
a  drop  of  alcohol  to  expel  air.  The  filaments  of  the  mould  are  not 
divided  into  cells.  From  the  first  they  branch  or  interlace,  forming 

30 


CHAPTER   IV 

a  cottony  mass.  Soon,  at  definite  points,  root-like  branches  are  sent 
into  the  substratum,  and  the  clusters  of  upright  stalks  appear. 
Each  one  of  these  stalks  enlarges  at  the  upper  end  into  a  little  sphere 
into  which  dense  protoplasm  collects  ;  finally  a  convex  partition  con- 
verts this  swelling  into  a  cell,  and  the  protoplasm  divides  into  many 
spores.  Ultimately  the  outer  wall  of  the  cell  dissolves  and  the  spores 
float  off  in  the  air,  leaving  only  the  stalks  and  the  collapsed  inner 
wall  or  partition.  This  is,  of  course,  simply  cell  division,  but  there  is 
sometimes  a  union  of  two  cells  to  form  a  resting  spore.  So  in  repro- 
duction as  well  as  in  structure  the  mould  resembles  some  filamentous 
algae.  Some  botanists  regard  fungi  of  this  type  as  degenerate  algae 
that  have  lost  chlorophyll  and  the  power  of  making  their  own  living. 
But  the  relationship  of  fungi  to  other  plants,  and  their  affinities 
among  themselves,  are  matters  that  are  far  from  settled.  Not  only 
this,  but  the  life  histories  of  many  fungi  are  not  known.  The  whole 
subject  is  a  difficult  one,  and  genuine  work  with  it  is  undertaken  only 
by  specialists.  Every  civilized  government  recognizes  the  value  of 
work  of  this  kind  in  the  department  of  agriculture,  and  has  in  its 
employ  men  whose  lives  are  devoted  to  this  branch  of  applied  science. 

It  is  easy  to  impress  children  with  the  importance  of  this  subject 
and  to  stimulate  their  interest  in  it,  by  frequently  calling  their  atten- 
tion to  these  fuugi  when  they  are  visibly  present  on  common  plants. 
Smut,  for  instance,  on  the  flowers,  (that  is,  on  the  tassels  and  ears)  of 
corn  is  of  common  occurrence.  The  life  history  of  smut  has  been 
only  recently  known.  The  black  sooty  mass  consists  of  spores,  at 
least  they  are  commonly  called  spores,  but  they  do  not  germinate 
directly  on  corn  plants.  They  fall  to  the  ground  and  send  out 
branches  that  produce  quantities  of  very  minute  spores.  Even  these 
spores  cannot  penetrate  a  mature  corn  plant ;  they  simply  infest  the 
ground  and  lie  in  wait  for  seedlings.  They  can  enter  the  tender 
tissues  of  the  seedlings,  and,  germinating  there,  they  produce  a  char- 
acteristic fungus  mycelium,  as  this  mass  of  vegative  cells  is  called. 
In  this  case  the  filaments  of  the  nlycelium  are  so  exceedingly  delicate 
that  it  has  been  difficult  to  detect  their  presence  in  the  most  careful 
microscopic  work  ;  but  it  has  finally  been  discovered  that  as  the  corn 
plant  grows,  this  invisible  foe  steadily  advances  to  the  parts  whence  the 
flowers  are  to  arise.  When  the  plant  sends  great  supplies  of  nour- 
ishment for  the  development  of  its  own  essential  organs,  the  fungus 
suddenly  springs  into  great  activity  and  uses  these  supplies  for  the 
production  of  its  own  spores. 

Rose  leaves  in  our  gardens  are  likely  to  be  infected  with  rust  whose 
spores  are  tound  on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves.  At  first  only  the 

31 


SUPPLEMENT 

red  spores  appear,  later  brown  or  black  spores  show  among  the  others, 
often  quite  hiding  them.  Under  the  microscope  the  red  spores  are 
seen  to  be  single  cells  with  thin  walls,  but  the  dark  spores  consist  of 
several  thick  walled  cells  raised  on  a  stalk.  This  illustrates  a  fact 
that  botanists  were  long  in  rinding  out,  the  fact  that  many  rusts  pro- 
duce different  sorts  of  spores  at  different  stages.  It  is  also  true  that 
the  same  fungus  may,  during  part  of  its  existence,  live  on  one  sort  of 
plant,  and  later  on  require  quite  a  different  plant  for  its  host.  It  is 
certain,  for  instance,  that  one  kind  of  rust  must  spend  its  first  period 
of  life  on  barberry  bushes,  and  that  it  produces  there  spores  in  cluster 
cups,  that  is  in  little  cups  imbedded  in  the  leaves.  These  spores  will 
germinate  only  when  they  fall  on  wheat.  The  mycelium  within  the 
tissue  of  the  wheat  produces  great  quantities  of  red  spores,  which,  in 
turn,  germinate  immediately  and  produce  more  red  rust,  until  the 
whole  grain  field  is  infected.  As  the  grain  ripens,  the  same  mycelium 
that  produced  thin-walled  red  spores  now  produces  the  thick- walled, 
darker  spores  that  can  remain  dormant  during  an  unfavorable  season. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  growing  season  these  spores  on  the  rotting 
straw  germinate,  and,  like  the  spores  produced  by  smut  on  corn,  pro- 
duce great  numbers  of  minute  spores ;  these  spores  germinate  only 
when  they  fall  on  the  barberry,  and  forming  cluster  cups,  complete  the 
cycle.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that,  long  before  the  life  history  of 
wheat  rust  was  known,  it  was  believed  that  the  barberry  exercised  an 
evil  influence  over  wheat,  and  in  1670  the  Massachusetts  legislature 
passed  laws  for  the  extermination  of  the  barberry.  Probably  not  all 
rusts  pass  through  as  many  stages  as  the  wheat  rust.  In  fact  it  is 
pretty  certain  that  the  rust  so  common  on  the  malva  has  neither  the 
cluster-cup  nor  the  red-rust  stage.  Examples  of  the  cluster-cup  stage 
are  more  likely  to  be  found  in  the  spring  months.  In  Southern  Cali- 
fornia they  are  common  on  Phacelia  distans  and  on  nettles. 

The  life  histories  of  fungi  that  affect  agricultural  products,  pro- 
vided they  are  known,  can  often  be  obtained  by  applying  to  govern- 
ment headquarters.  Frequently  the  stories  of  discovery  in  the  fields 
of  research  are  of  absorbing  interest.  The  life  of  Louis  Pasteur  by 
his  son-in-law  is  a  striking  example. 

It  should  be  possible  anywhere  in  California  to  obtain  sufficient 
material  to  arouse  an  interest  in  lichens.  A  supply  of  the  larger, 
more  striking  kinds  from  the  coast  or  mountains,  once  obtained,  will 
last  for  years  ;  but  the  smaller,  more  common  kinds  will  answer,  and 
children  should  soon  be  able  to  find  lichens  for  themselves  on  fire 
wood,  rocks,  walls  or  trees  in  shaded  places.  Special  effort  should 
be  made  to  find  specimens  with  spore-fruits ;  these  are  usually  cup  or 

32 


CHAPTER   IV 

saucer-shaped,  and  have  a  smooth,  almost  polished  inner  surface,  often 
of  contrasting  color.  The  nature  of  the  fungus  part  is  made  more  or 
less  apparent  by  loosening  the  lichen  from  its  substratum,  or  by  pick- 
ing it  apart.  If  lichens  in  any  considerable  quantity  can  be  obtained, 
their  avidity  for  water  can  be  shown  by  measure  or  weight.  Some 
lichens  absorb  fifty  per  cent  of  their  weight  of  moisture  in  ten  minutes. 
Water  often  dissolves  the  pigment  of  the  lichens,  and  usually  it 
renders  the  green  color  of  the  layer  of  algae  just  beneath  the  upper 
surface  more  apparent. 

The  remarkable  symbiosis  between  the  two  kinds  of  plants,  the 
fungus  and  the  algae,  which  make  up  the  lichen,  has  been  discovered 
only  in  the  latter  half  of  our  own  century,  but  it  seems  now  to  be 
generally  accepted  as  a  fact.  Full  demonstration  of  it  could  not,  of 
course,  be  undertaken  in  an  ordinary  school-room,  but  the  inter- 
weaving hyphae  of  the  fungus  and  the  imbedded  algae  (or  more 
properly  green  plants  of  even  lower  rank)  can  be  shown  under  a 
moderately  high  power  of  the  microscope.  More  skillful  manipula- 
tion is  necessary  to  show  the  spore-sacs  clearly.  Any  one  attempting 
this  for  the  first  time  would  better  begin  with  the  spore-fruits  of  the 
"  cup  fungus,"  or  Peziza,  which  is  nearly  related  to  the  lichen  fungus, 
and  is  neither  tough  nor  brittle.  The  spore-fruits  of  the  Peziza  are 
rather  common  in  manure  during  the  rainy  season  ;  the  most  common 
kind  is  a  light  brown  or  amber  cup,  from  one  and  a  half  to  two 
inches  in  diameter ;  the  inner  surface  of  the  cup  is  velvety,  and  a 
vertical  section  shows  that  every  thread  of  the  pile  of  the  velvet  is  a 
slender,  delicate  sac,  many  sacs  containing  eight  spores.  If  you  keep 
these  spores  under  observation,  you  will  see  that  on  maturity  they 
suddenly  expel  little  clouds  of  spores.  The  sacs  that  form  the  lining 
of  the  lichen  cups  are  much  smaller  and  have  their  tips  hardened,  that 
is,  it  is  their  hardened  tips  that  form  the  polished  inner  surface  of 
the  cup.  They,  too,  expel  their  spores  at  maturity,  and  bodies  so 
minute  and  in  such  multitudes  are  sure  to  be  scattered  everywhere  by 
the  winds.  The*se  spores,  of  course,  belong  to  the  fungus  part  of  the 
lichen,  but  myriads  of  the  one-celled  host  plants  in  their  resting  stage 
are  also  blown  about.  A  piece  of  moist  blotting  paper  exposed  to  the 
wind,  even  on  a  high  mountain  top,  will  collect  a  goodly  number  of 
both  fungus  spores  and  host  plants.  The  coarser,  meal-like  powder 
often  seen  on  lichens,  consists  of  fragments,  little  colonies  of  algae 
and  fungus  combined,  that  are  capable  of  growing  into  independ- 
ent lichen  bodies. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  subject  of  nutrition  is  made  clear  in  the  Reader. 
The  green  host  plants  act  as  green  cells  always  do  in  making 


SUPPLEMENT 

organic  food.  The  delicate  cells  of  the  fungus  mycelium  absorb  food 
very  rapidly,  the  food  material  being  mainly  atmospheric  moisture 
and  the  salts  and  gases  dissolved  therein,  but  the  hyphae  that  pene- 
trate the  substratum  do  select  and  appropriate  from  it  some  food 
materials,  which  they  dissolve  by  means  of  an  excretion.  Lichens, 
like  many  other  lower  plants,  and  like  liverworts  and  mosses  in  a 
higher  group,  have  the  power  of  surviving  long  periods  of  dessication 
and  reviving  with  marvelous  rapidity. 

Children  are  sure  to  be  interested  in  toadstools,  and  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  getting  a  collection  of  them  after  a  heavy  rain.  Urge 
the  children  to  hunt  for  the  part  that  absorbs  the  food,  the  mycelium. 
It  is  sometimes  almost  invisible,  the  delicate  filaments  or  hyphse  being 
obscured  by  the  soil.  When  the  mycelium  must  thread  its  way  through 
loose,  decaying  leaves,  it  is  sometimes  a  webby  mass  of  considerable 
extent,  but  usually  the  vegetative  part  is  absurdly  small  as  compared 
with  the  spore-be?  ring  part.  The  rapidity  of  the  growth  of  the  spore- 
fruit  is  simply  inexplicable.  We  may  bear  in  mind  that  rich,  ready- 
made  food  is  at  hand,  and  that  the  long,  slender,  thin-walled  cells  of 
a  fungus  mycelium  always  have  the  power  of  rapid  absorption,  or  that 
the  mycelium  may  have  been  at  work  for  a  long  time  before  sending 
up  the  spore-fruit,  still  the  cell-making  energy  that  results  in  the  for- 
mation of  a  compact  body  as  large  as  an  egg  from  a  minute,  vegetative 
part  in  a  few  hours,  is  marvelous. 

The  collection  of  toadstools  is  pretty  sure  to  include  the  one  most 
commonly  eaten,  Agaricus  campestris,  and  this  species  shows  very 
prettily  the  different  stages  of  growth  of  the  cap  or  spore-bearing 
part.  The  little  white  nodules  early  show  the  beginnings  of  gills 
within  ;  then  there  is  the  stage  where  the  veil,  or  volva,  which  has 
protected  the  gills,  is  beginning  to  break  from  the  stalk.  Have  the 
children  notice  that  in  this  species,  the  remains  of  the  volva  always 
form  a  ring  well  up  on  the  stem.  In  the  poisonous  Amanita,  No.  2, 
the  broken  volva  is  left  at  the  base  of  the  stalk  forming  a  little  cup. 
As  the  cap  of  the  Agaricus  expands,  it  can  be  seen  that  the  gills  are 
unequal  in  length  ;  they  are  at  first  a  delicate  flesh  color,  but  they 
become  darker  as  the  spores  mature,  the  ripe  spores  being  nearly 
black. 

The  collection  will  also  probably  contain  some  of  the  Coprinus 
group,  toadstools  whose  caps  do  not  fully  expand  and  that 
liquify  when  the  spores  are  mature.  The  large  one,  No.  3,  in  the 
picture,  is  a  delicate  grey  and  pink  species  ;  small  light-brown  Coprini 
are  more  common.  Sometimes  members  of  this  group  have  a 
rather  foetid  odor  that  is  useful  in  attracting  carrion  beetles,  and  flies. 

34 


CHAPTER    IV 

The  number  of  spores  produced  by  one  toadstool  plant  is  beyond 
compulation.  The  stalks  that  give  the  velvety  appearance  to  the 
gills  are  so  densely  crowded  and  so  minute  that  very  thin  sections 
and  high  powers  of  the  microscope  are  necessary  to  show  them 
clearly,  and  each  stalk  bears  four  spores.  These  spores  may,  of  course, 
be  scattered  by  the  wind  in  addition  to  the  other  methods  of  dissemi- 
nation suggested.  Mushroom  "  spawn  "  from  which  the  cultivated 
Agaricus  campestris  is  propagated  is  the  mycelium  of  the  fungus. 

The  value  of  edible  fungi  as  food  can  hardly  be  overstated.  They 
have  nearly  the  same  value  as  meat,  a  fact  not  surprising  when  one 
reflects  that  fungi  in  their  methods  of  nutrition  resemble  animals 
rather  than  green  plants.  In  older  countries,  like  France  and  Ger- 
many, where  the  struggle  for  existence  is  keener,  this  great  waste  of 
food  does  not  occur.  The  peasants  gather  and  preserve  great  quan- 
tities of  toadstools.  In  our  Eastern  States  the  edible  kinds  have  been 
described  and  illustrated,  both  in  popular  works  like  Gibson's  charm- 
ing book,  and  in  government  publications.  On  our  coast  it  is  not  so 
easy  to  learn  to  know  the  edible  species.  Prof.  A.  J.  McClatchie  has 
tested  the  species  about  Pasadena,  with  the  conclusion  mentioned  in 
the  Reader,  but  the  results  of  his  work  have  not  been  put  in  form 
generally  available.  When  the  intelligence  of  the  public  demands  it, 
probably  ways  and  means  will  be  found  to  make  the  identification  of 
our  edible  fungi,  too,  a  matter  of  certainty. 

It  cannot  be  too  emphatically  stated  that  there  is  no  infallible  rule 
for  distinguishing  all  poisonous  from  all  edible  species.  We  must 
learn  to  know  each  edible  species  so  as  to  surely  distinguish  it  from 
all  others,  just  as  we  know  certain  species  of  higher  plants.  It  is  true 
that  the  edible  kinds  greatly  outnumber  the  poisonous  ones,  but  the 
poisonous  species  of  the  Amanita  group  are  usually  fatal.  There  are 
numerous  species  not  poisonous  that  are  not  edible  on  account  of  an 
acrid  or  otherwise  disagreeable  flavor. 

As  stated  in  the  Reader,  some  puff  balls  are  edible,  and  so  are  some 
species  of  other  fungi  nearly  related  to  toadstools  and  puff  balls;  but 
we  shall  have  to  wait  for  further  knowledge  of  our  California 
fungi  before  we  can  fully  avail  ourselves  of  our  resources  of  this  sort. 
In  the  meantime  there  is  much  that  is  attractive  or  interesting  about 
these  allied  forms.  The  spores  of  some  of  our  puff  balls  are  inter- 
mixed with  minute  filaments  that  are  hygrometric  and  by  their  move- 
ments aid  in  distribution.  The  earth-star  of  the  picture  is  common 
in  oak-covered  slopes  in  Southern  California.  As  stated,  the  outer 
coat  closes  up  in  dry  air ;  I  am  told  that  some  other  earth -stars  close 
in  moist  air  instead.  The  shelf-fungi  are  sometimes  very  pleasing  in 

85 


SUPPLEMENT 

form  and  coloring.  There  are  other  sorts  of  Polyporus  that  are 
extremely  mischievous,  forming  the  so-called  dry  rot  of  timber  in 
dark  cellars,  mines,  etc.  The  "stink-horn"  fungus  is  rather  com- 
mon in  the  vicinity  of  L,os  Angeles.  When  it  first  appears  above 
ground,  it  is  enclosed  in  a  brown  or  purplish  membrane,  and  looks 
rather  like  a  potato  ;  but  soon  this  membrane  bursts,  and  the  spore- 
fruit,  in  the  form  of  horns  with  a  honeycombed  surface,  appears.  The 
foetid  odor  is  overpowering;  it  serves  to  attract  flies,  which  feed  on  the 
sticky  fluid  surrounding  the  spores  and  thus  carry  many  of  them  away. 


36 


CHAPTER  V. 


AFTER  THE   RAINS. 

The  time  for  this  lesson  in  the  average  year  in  Southern  California 
is  December.  It  should  not  be  taken  up  until  the  seedlings  and  early 
perennials  are  well  started,  and  are  in  the  characteristic  condition  of 
plants  that  have  a  good  supply  of  water.  As  in  the  lesson  on  autumn 
plants,  this  chapter  in  the  Reader  should,  by  all  means,  be  pre- 
ceded by  a  field-day  lesson  conducted  by  the  teacher.  Perhaps  after 
these  two  excursions  by  the  class  as  a  whole,  children  can  be  trusted 
to  collect  material  for  other  lessons  by  themselves.  If  this  field 
lesson  can  be  undertaken  before  the  holidays,  it  will  be  a 
stimulus  to  the  children  to  undertake  like  expeditions  by  themselves 
during  the  holiday  vacation.  It  would  be  well  to  call  for  a  collection 
of  ferns,  liverworts  arid  mosses  for  the  first  lesson  after  vacation.  The 
liverworts,  mosses,  and  ferns  growing  from  prothallia  (see  Fig.  30,) 
should  be  shown  the  class  on  this  excursion.  The  experiment  with 
the  bur-clover  seeds,  too,  should  precede  the  use  of  the  Reader.  Put 
some  free  seeds,  also  some  burs  containing  seeds,  on  moist  sand, 
cover  with  glass  and  keep  warm.  The  burs  should  be  somewhat 
anchored  by  sprinkling  a  little  sand  over  them,  so  as  to  imitate  the 
condition  of  the  wayside  burs.  The  experiment  will  require  three  or 
four  days,  and  it  is  well  to  first  soak  the  seeds  and  burs  a  few  hours. 

This  chapter  of  the  Reader  needs  little  exposition.  The  first  part 
is  but  a  summary  of  what  the  children  should  have  already  observed. 
The  question  of  the  use  of  the  clover  seeds  remaining  in  the  bur, 
should  have  been  proposed,  but  not  answered,  except  as  the  children 
have  thought  out  the  answer  for  themselves.  A  main  physiological 
point  of  the  lesson  is  to  show  the  behavior  of  plants  that  have  plenty 
of  moisture  but  not  much  heat.  Obviously  a  stretching  or  spreading 
out  to  the  sun  will  be  a  most  striking  phenomenon.  Malva  leaves  face 
the  sun  persistently,  and,  on  account  of  their  long  petioles,  easily 
avoid  shading  one  another.  The  bur-clover,  Medicago  denticulata, 

37 


SUPPLEMENT 

and  the  filaree,  Erodium  cicutarium,  and  E.  moschatum  are 
equally  successful.  E.  cicutarium  is  more  likely  to  form  pretty  leaf 
rosettes,  but  E.  moschatum,  in  the  vicinity  of  Los  Angeles  at  least, 
grows  more  luxuriantly;  the  musky,  ferny,  leaves  grow  close  together, 
every  one  erect  and  rejoicing  in  the  sun,  and  they  form  a  most 
exquisite  covering  for  our  waste  ground  and  waysides. 

The  subject  of  the  arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  stem,  or  phyllo- 
taxy,  has  been  worked  out  very  fully.  The  spiral  arrangement  that 
often  exists  can  be  expressed,  it  has  been  shown,  by  a  series  of  frac- 
tions that  progress  in  the  most  fascinating  way  ;  but  this  arrangement 
can  be  detected  only  in  vertical  shoots  that  grow  under  simple  condi- 
tions. Ordinarily  on  the  same  plant  vertical  and  horizontal  shoots 
will  present  different  arrangements  on  account  of  the  twisting  of  the 
leaves  to  accommodate  themselves  to  the  light.  If  a  vertical  shoot  be 
fastened  down  to  a  horizontal  position,  the  leaves  will  adjust  them- 
selves to  the  change.  Kerner  in  his  "Natural  History  of  Plants," 
pages  392-424,  and  Lubbock  in  "Flowers,  Fruits  and  Leaves,"  have 
discussed  this  subject  in  a  most  entertaining  way.  In  NewelPs  Reader 
in  Botany,  Part  I.,  extracts  from  both  are  given.  But  the  details  of 
the  subject  are  much  too  complex  for  children  ;  besides,  these  obser- 
vations, made  mainly  on  the  trees  of  England  and  of  Central  Germany, 
assume  that  the  arrangement  of  leaves  is  to  secure  the  greatest  amount 
of  illumination  possible,  and  this  is  true  of  California  plants  for  only 
a  few  months  in  the  year.  Our  trees  and  perennial  summer  plants 
present  a  notably  different  appearance  from  the  the  trees  of  countries 
with  a  short,  moist,  warm  season. 

But  at  this  season  our  new  leaves  have  many  striking  devices  for 
getting  as  much  sunlight  as  possible.  Illustrations  are  everywhere. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  children  try  to  sketch  leaf  rosettes  and 
mosaics,  looking  down  on  the  plant  of  course.  The  leaves  of  nettle 
seedlings  are  arranged  on  a  simple  plan  and  lend  themselves  well  to 
this  exercise.  So  do  climbing  plants,  for  they  are  obviously  most 
likely  of  all  to  form  mosaics. 

In  the  valleys  of  California,  native  vegetation  seems  to  be  in  little 
danger  from  cold,  and  winter  plants  with  hairy  or  woolly  coverings 
to  protect  them  against  sudden  changes  are  not  very  common.  Nor, 
so  far  as  I  have  observed,  is  there  a  large  number  of  plants  that  take 
"sleeping  positions  "  at  night.  Beside  the  clovers,  the  oxalis,  wild 
and  cultivated,  and  the  common  introduced  acacia  with  bipinnate 
leaves,  are  well  known  examples.  The  oxalis  will  take  this  position 
when  placed  in  a  dark  box,  and  the  acacia  on  being  picked  or  roughly 
handled,  so  the  folding  of  these  leaves  can  be  observed  or  drawn  at 

38 


CHAPTER    V 

any  time.  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  value  of  this  habit  to  the  plant  in 
preventing  radiation  of  heat  from  the  leaves.  Darwin  found  that 
clover  leaves  artificially  prevented  from  folding  on  a  cold  night 
perished,  while  the  other  clover  leaves  survived.  A  discussion  of  the 
causes  that  produce  these  movements  of  the  leaves,  hardly  belongs  to 
elementary  work. 

It  is  not  strange  that  a  climate  like  ours  should  have  a  large  num- 
ber of  perennials  with  bulbs  or  other  underground  storehouses. 
These  underground  parts  can  store  more  food  than  seeds,  and  are  pro- 
tected by  the  soil  from  evaporation  during  the  long  dry  season. 
They  need  only  to  protect  themselves  against  the  attacks  of  rodents 
as  most  of  them  do.  I  have  found  that  the  soap-root,  Chlorogdtum 
pomeridianum,  appeals  especially  to  little  folks,  perhaps  because  of 
its  utilitarian  associations.  Its  botanical  story  is  easy  to  read.  The 
flowers  open  at  night  and  perhaps  stand  a  better  chance  for  pollina- 
tion by  coming  so  late  in  the  season.  The  cluster  lily,  Brodicea 
capitata,  and  the  blue-eyed  grass,  Sisyrinchium  helium,  are  such 
common  plants  that  they  should  be  known  from  their  first  appear- 
ance. Common  names  for  the  Brodiaea  are  many  ;  calling  it  wild 
onion  should  be  discouraged  because  of  the  confusion  with  the  true 
wild  onions,  Alliums,  that  are  common  in  many  regions.  Of  course 
Sisyrinchium  is  not  a  grass,  but  the  common  name  is  well  established. 
Many  of  the  perennials  of  this  season  belong,  like  No.  i,  to  the 
family  Umbelliferae  ;  the  mint  family,  Labiatae,  too,  is  well  repre- 
sented in  the  new  growth  of  this  season.  Of  course  the  ferns  are  not 
to  be  ignored  in  this  field  lesson  because  they  are  to  be  studied  later. 
There  is  no  reason,  except  the  matter  of  time,  why  they  should  not  all 
be  taken  up  at  once.  Children  should  certainly  know  the  common 
names  of  all  the  ferns  of  their  vicinity. 

The  Chilicothe,  Micrampelis,  or  Megarrhiza  in  California  Flora, 
deserves,  I  think,  all  the  space  given  it  in  the  Reader.  It  is  a  com- 
mon and  an  attractive  plant  and  is  interesting  in  many  ways.  In 
Rattan's  "California  Flora,"  an  account  of  the  germination  of  its 
seeds  is  given  ;  children  should  be  asked  to  collect  the  seeds  during 
the  summer  for  growth  in  the  schoolroom  another  year,  as  the  seeds 
seldom  germinate  out  of  doors  in  Southern  California.  Perhaps 
some  one  else  will  succeed  better  than  I  have  in  seeing  insects  polli- 
nate the  flowers.  I  have  seen  only  flies  visit  them  in  a  haphazard 
way  that  did  not  seem  to  benefit  the  flowers.  I  have  not  had  oppor- 
tunity to  watch  the  plants  at  night.  Of  course  the  showy,  white  co- 
rollas are  superfluous  if  the  flowers  are  pollinated  by  the  wind  only. 
If  a  plant  should  be  growing  near  the  school  building,  by  all  means 

39 


SUPPLEMENT 

have  the  children  watch  the  climbing  carefully.  The  subject  of 
climbing  plants  is  one  of  great  interest,  and  will  be  referred  to  in  other 
chapters  ;  the  attention  of  the  children  should  be  directed  to  the 
subject  at  every  opportunity.  In  this  case,  if  practicable,  mark  a 
young  tendril,  note  how  it  grasps  an  object,  when  it  coils,  etc. 

Perennial  lupines,  as  well  as  the  annual  species,  are  quick  to 
respond  to  the  rains.  In  the  vicinity  of  Los  Angeles,  L.  albifrons 
blooms  all  the  year  on  northern  slopes,  but  the  flowers  are  much  more 
abundant  during  the  rainy  season.  The  wild  currants  (Ribes  glutino- 
sum,  or  kindred  species)  are  in  full  flower  in  December  in  the  foot-hills 
of  Southern  California,  and  are  common  early  flowers  throughout  the 
state.  Their  fancied  resemblance  to  the  trailing  arbutus  is  of  course 
only  in  color  and  form.  The  flower  clusters  are  more  or  less  pendent 
to  escape  wetting — moisture  is  fatal  to  pollen — and  often  the  cluster  is 
exactly  beneath  a  leaf,  but  the  protection  of  the  flowers  by  leaves  is 
not  so  marked  as  in  the  gooseberries.  I  have  seen  the  flowers  pollin- 
ated by  bees,  hive  bees  and  the  larger  native  bees,  also  by  butterflies. 
The  stigmas  I  have  noted  have  been  usually,  but  not  always,  slightly 
beyond  the  anthers.  They  are  held  rigidly  in  the  entrance  to  the 
flower  and  are  sure  to  be  struck  by  the  tongue  of  the  entering  guest. 
The  anthers,  which  open  inward,  are  ranged  round  the  narrow 
entrance,  and  are  likely  to  be  struck  also.  I  have  seen  undoubted 
cases  of  self-pollination  when  the  anthers  and  stigmas  were  at  equal 
heights,  although  when  the  flower  first  opens  the  anthers  are  held  at 
a  slight  distance  from  the  stigmas.  I  find  the  plants  thronged  with 
bees  when  the  weather  is  at  all  favorable. 

The  gooseberries  that  flower  in  December  and  January  in  the  San 
Gabriel  mountains,  are  Ribes  amarum  and  R.  hesperium,  species 
allied  to  R.  Menziesii,  which  is  common  in  other  parts  of  the  state. 
They  are  beautiful,  graceful  flowers,  -with  their  long,  red  calyxes, 
reflexed  sepals,  and  white  petals,  and  they  seem  to  me  to  be  mainly 
pollinated  by  humming  birds.  Ribes  aureum  or  R.  tenuiflorum,  the 
yellow  "flowering"  currant,  and  Ribes  speciosum,  a  very,  common 
later  scarlet  gooseberry,  will  be  referred  to  again.  The  wild  lilac 
Ceanothus,  will  also  be  considered  later,  when  the  children  are  better 
prepared  to  understand  its  pollination.  Ceanothus  crassifolius 
flowers  early,  and  has  rolled  leaves  with  furry  backs  that  assist  tran- 
spiration now  by  keeping  the  dew  from  wetting  the  stomata,  and  later 
on,  check  transpiration,  as  has  been  shown  before. 

You  are  likely  to  find  several  deciduous  shrubs  that,  like  the  Ribes, 
require  little  heat  to  bring  out  the  new  leaves,  and  these  leaves  are 
almost  sure  to  present  some  features  of  special  interest.  Several 

40 


CHAPTER    V 

have  a  bloom  on  their  under  side,  which  sheds  the  dew  at  the  slightest 
disturbance.  Do  not  fail  to  have  children  notice  that  dew  collects  on 
the  lower,  as  well  as  on  the  upper  side  of  leaves.  The  fact  that  dew 
remaining  a  long  time  on  plants,  hinders  transpiration,  will  be  brought 
out  in  the  next  chapter.  Pentstemon  cordifoliu-s,  a  plant  sometimes 
called  wild  honeysuckle,  pictured  in  Fig.  71,  puts  out  leaves  in  early 
winter.  This  is  a  climbing,  or  perhaps  more  properly,  a  weaving 
plant,  and  it  is  easier  to  see  its  method  of  getting  up  in  the  world  now, 
than  when  it  is  in  full  foliage.  It  sends  out  some  new  shoots  that 
seem  to  be  pushing  upward  for  support,  but  shoots  from  branches  that 
have  already  looped  themselves  over  a  supporting  twig  of  some  other 
shrub,  often  continue  on  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  the  different 
disposal  of  leaves  on  these  two  sorts  of  shoots,  is  very  marked  indeed. 
The  leaves  are  opposite,  and  on  the  vertical  stems  they  stand  at  right 
angles  with  the  stem,  in  four  orderly  lines,  an  arrangement  advan- 
tageous for  short  petioled,  broad-based  leaves,  so  long  as  stems  are 
vertical.  But  when  the  shoots  are  horizontal  all  of  the  leaves  twist 
on  their  petioles  sufficiently  to  face  upward,  and  the  leaves  of  the 
alternate  pairs  bring  themselves  into  the  same  plane  as  the  other 
pairs,  neatly  filling  in  the  interspaces.  This  is  a  common  habit  of 
plants  with  opposite  leaves,  and  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  find  other 
illustrations.  The  fact  that  the  poison  oak  sometimes  climbs  like  the 
English  ivy,  by  aerial  rootlets,  should  be  noted.  The  new  leaves  and 
shoots  of  the  poison  oak,  Pentstemon,  and  many  other  plants,  have  a 
very  noticeable  amount  of  red  coloring  matter,  or  anthocyanin.  As 
stated  before,  this  color  in  stems  and  veins  is  supposed  by  some  botanists 
to  act  as  a  screen,  protecting  the  various  products  that  pass  along  these 
routes;  and  it  seems  to  be  fully  proved  that,  by  changing  light  to  heat, 
anthocyanin  is  of  special  service  to  young  leaves. 

By  this  time  the  buds  on  many  of  the  trees  may  be  somewhat 
swollen,  particularly  on  the  willow,  sycamore  and  alder,  and  the 
alder  is  probably  in  flower.  It  is  easy  to  see  why  it  is  an  advantage 
for  the  flowers  of  wind  pollinated  trees  to  develop  before  the  leaves. 
The  willows  are  pollinated  by  bees  as  will  be  shown  later.  It  is  very 
desirable  indeed  for  children  to  take  a  first  lesson  in  pollination  from 
the  willows.  Much  of  the  observation  called  for  in  the  chapter  on 
the  "  Awakening  of  Trees,"  must  be  carried  on  beforehand.  The 
teacher  should,  if  possible,  select  trees  that  can  be  watched  without 
special  excursions  ;  the  next  best  plan  is  to  have  twigs  that  show 
signs  of  activity  brought  to  the  schoolroom  and  kept  in  water. 


SUPPLEMENT 


CHAPTER  VI. 


FERNS  AND  THEIR  RELATIVES. 

The  plants  of  this  chapter  constitute  the  group  Archegoniatae,  a 
name  suggested  by  their  method  of  reproduction  ;  but  while  their 
peculiarities  of  reproduction  are  of  special  interest  to  the  biologist, 
and  form  properly  a  basis  for  classification,  the  subject  is  not  within 
the  comprehension  of  children,  and  so  is  hardly  touched  upon  in  the 
Reader.  A  thorough  study  of  the  reproduction  of  ferns  and  all  higher 
plants  demands  skillful  work  with  the  microscope,  but  perhaps  all 
teachers  should  have  some  general  idea  of  the  subject. 

This  division  of  the  plant  world,  Archegoniatae,  is  the  highest 
among  flowerless  plants,  or,  more  properly,  among  plants  that  do  not 
produce  seeds.  It  includes  two  groups,  the  Bryophytes,  comprising 
mosses  and  liverworts,  and  Pteridophytes,  that  is,  ferns,  horsetails, 
club-mosses,  and  a  few  others.  All  members  of  these  groups  bear 
organs  called  antheridia,  which  contain  fertilizing  cells  called  sperm 
cells,  or  spermatazoids  ;  also  organs  called  archegonia,  which  contain 
egg  cells  or  oospheres.  As  in  seedless  plants  generally,  the  fertilizing 
cell  swims  to  the  egg  cell ;  it  is  only  in  seed-bearing  plants  that  the 
fertilizing  cell,  the  pollen  grain,  is  transmitted  through  the  air. 
Necessarily,  then,  all  Archegoniatae  must  inhabit  moist  places.  After 
the  union  of  sperm  and  egg  cells,  there  grows  a  more  or  less  complex 
body  that  produces  spores.  From  these  spores  grow  the  plant  bodies 
that  bear  archegonia  and  antheridia,  and  so  on  ;  so  there  are  always 
two  phases — two  generations  in  the  old  terminology — in  the  life  of 
these  plants  :  from  the  spores  grow  the  sexual  plants  ;  from  the  union 
of  two  cells  produced  by  these  plants  grows  the  spore-bearing  plant, 
or  sporophyte,  as  it  is  sometimes  called. 

The  plants  that  grow  immediately  from  liverwort  spores  are  usually 
similar  to  Nos.  9  and  10,  Fig.  30,  that  is,  they  are  horizontal  leaf-like 
bodies  fastened  to  the  soil  by  root-hairs.  The  antheridia  and  arche- 
gonia are  imbedded  in  these  bodies  ;  sometimes  both  kinds  of  organs 

42 


CHAPTER    VI 

in  the  same,  sometimes  in  different  plants.  After  the  sperm  cell 
swims  down  the  archegonium  and  unites  with  the  egg  cell,  there 
grows  from  the  fertilized  cell,  a  spore-bearing  body  ;  in  the  liverwort, 
No.  9  in  the  illustration,  this  body  is  like  a  little  umbrella  ;  it  is 
sometimes  urn-shaped,  sometimes  a  mere  sphere  beneath  the  frond. 
This  spore-bearing  body  remains  attached  to  the  mother  plant,  and  is 
mainly  supported  by  it,  though  it  may  assist  in  food-making.  The 
moss  spore  produces  first  a  branching,  filamentous  body  resembling 
some  of  the  green  algae,  but  soon,  from  buds  on  these  filaments  num- 
bers of  tiny  plants  arise,  each  consisting  of  stem,  root-hairs  and  leaves, 
that  is,  the  part  of  the  plant  that  is  commonly  noticed.  The  antheri- 
dia  and  archegonia  are  produced  among  these  leaves,  sometimes  in 
the  midst  of  leaf  rosettes  which  resemble  flowers.  After  an  egg  cell 
in  an  archegonium  has  been  fertilized,  the  spore-bearing  body  begins 
to  grow  ;  it  is  usually  urn-shaped  and  borne  on  a  stalk.  As  in  the 
liverworts,  this  spore-bearing  part  remains  attached  to  the  sexual 
plant,  but  it  has  always  green  cells  and  stomata  and  helps  in  food- 
making. 

From  the  fern  spore  grows  the  prothallium,  which,  in  all  our 
species,  much  resembles  the  first  generation  of  the  liverwort.  The 
prothallium  bears  archegouia  and  antheridia,  and  from  an  egg  cell, 
after  the  sperm  cell  is  united  with  it,  grows  the  plant  we  commonly 
call  the  fern.  This  spore-bearing  plant  becomes  capable  of  nourish- 
ing itself  very  early  in  its  existence,  and  the  sexual  plant  perishes. 
So  the  first  generation  of  the  fern  is  comparatively  minute,  and  has  a 
brief  existence  ;  the  second  generation  is  of  considerable  size,  it  is 
as  well  equipped  as  flowering  plants  for  supporting  itself,  and  it  may 
live  for  years.  The  first  generation  of  the  horsetail,  Equisetum,  is 
even  smaller  than  the  fern  prothallium,  while,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
sporophyte  is  a  complex  plant  of  long  duration. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  Pteridophyte,  biologically,  is  a  small 
club-moss,  Selaginella.  One  species  is  common  on  California  foot- 
hills and  mountains.  It  might  be  mistaken  for  a  very  hardy  moss  ; 
its  stems  are  woody  and  much  branched  and  its  closely  crowded  leaves 
are  as  small  as  moss  leaves  but  much  thicker.  The  Selaginella  pro- 
duces, in  the  axils  of  leaves,  two  kinds  of  spores,  macrospores  and 
microspores,  that  is,  large  spores  and  small  spores.  Four  of  the  large 
spores  fill  a  macrospore  case,  while  a  microspore  case  contains  many 
spores.  Both  kinds  of  spores  fall  to  the  ground  and  germinate.  The 
prothallium  growing  from  the  macrospore  always  produces  arche- 
gonia containing  egg  cells,  but  the  prothallium  is  minute  and  merely 
protrudes  from  the  thick  spore  wall,  which  also  encloses  a  store  of 

43 


SUPPLEMENT 

food  for  growth  of  the  young  sporophyte  ;  so  it  is  apparent  that  this 
macrospore  is  analagous  to  an  ovule,  which  also  contains,  besides 
stored  food,  an  egg  cell  surrounded  by  a  tissue  more  or  less  similar  to 
archegonium  and  prothallium.  The  prothallium  produced  by  the 
microspore  consists  of  but  one  cell,  and  bears  but  one  antheridium 
containing  spermatazoids  ;  so  the  microspore  approaches  the  pollen 
grain  in  simplicity  of  structure,  for  there  is  one  portion  of  the  pollen 
grain  that  is  supposed  to  correspond  to  a  spermatazoid. 

The  ovules  of  the  Coniferae  are  more  nearly  analagous  to  macro- 
spores  than  are  the  ovules  of  higher  spermaphytes,  but  a  thorough 
study  of  the  fertilization  of  seed-bearing  plants  requires  more  skill 
than  a  like  study  of  lower  plants  ;  so  the  old  term  Cryptogram,  mean- 
ing hidden  fertilization,  is  really  more  applicable  to  higher  than  to 
lower  plants.  On  the  other  hand,  the  transference  of  the  fertilizing 
cell,  that  is  pollination,  is  easily  observed  in  seed-bearing  plants, 
while  the  corresponding  process  in  lower  plants  always  occurs  in 
water  and  can  be  seen  only  with  the  aid  of  the  microscope. 

The  lowest  of  Archegoniatae,  the  liverworts,  vary  in  form.  Some 
of  them  are  as  thin  and  minute  as  fern  prothallia,  which  they  closely 
resemble,  while  the  higher  ones,  the  scale-mosses,  resemble  mosses, 
having  slender  stems  and  thin,  green  leaves  ;  those  in  the  illustration 
are  of  the  type  most  common  in  California.  No.  10,  Fig.  30,  the 
Lunularia,  is  a  common  green-house  pest;  like  many  other  plants 
growing  under  very  favorable  conditions,  this  liverwort  reproduces  only 
by  fragments  ;  the  fragments  in  this  case  are  tiny  green  buds,  called 
gemmae  ;  they  are  contained  in  the  crescents  at  the  tip  of  the  frond. 
No.  9  is  the  female  plant  of  a  very  common,  native  liverwort  Fimbriaria 
Californica.  This  liverwort  is  perennial ;  like  many  other  California 
liverworts,  it  survives  the  dry  season  by  giving  up  its  moisture  and 
curling  its  upper  surface  inward  until  it  seems  a  fossil,  rather  than  a 
dormant  plant.  With  the  first  rains  the  plants  expand  at  once,  and 
colonies  of  them,  usually  forming  rosettes,  are  common  and  rather 
conspicuous  in  springy,  or  moist,  shady  places.  The  plants  of  the 
female  colonies  have  at  first  a  nearly  smooth  upper  surface,  then  a 
tiny  ball  appears,  and  they  ultimately  become  like  the  one  in  the 
picture  ;  the  male  plants  have  ridges  on  the  upper  surface.  The 
spores  of  Fimbriaria  Californica  are  very  interesting,  and  are  easily 
shown  with  low  powers  of  the  microscope.  They  do  not  mature  until 
the  summer  months,  but  in  winter  some  can  usually  be  found  still 
adhering  to  the  old  capsules.  Shake  out  the  coarse,  yellow  powder 
on  a  dry  slide,  moisten  very  slightly  by  breathing  on  it,  mount  with- 
out cover  glass,  and  examine  quickly.  Besides  the  large,  rough 

44 


CHAPTER    VI 

spores  there  are  long  cells,  called  elaters,  with  spiral  markings.  As 
the  elaters  dry,  they  coil  up  suddenly  with  considerable  force  and  so 
scatter  the  spores. 

Mosses  do  not  generally  form  a  conspicuous  part  of  California  vege- 
tation, but  smaller  kinds  can  always  be  found  in  moist  weather.  The 
moss  frequently  chosen  as  a  type  in  text  books  of  botany,  Funaria 
hygrometrica  y  is  very  common  in  California.  It  will  often  be  found 
even  along  city  streets,  on  gravelly  soils  shaded  by  hedges  or  walls. 
Its  "  flowers  "  are  abundant  in  winter,  that  is,  its  clusters  of  yellow 
or  brown  antheridia  are  plainly  visible  in  the  centers  of  many  of  the 
plants,  while  other  plants  have  archegonia  and  spore-capsules  in 
various  stages.  The  antheridia  are  easily  mounted,  and  a  high  power 
will  usually  show  escaping  sperm  atazoids.  Archegonia  are  not  so 
easily  found.  Ripened  moss  capsules,  or  spore-cases,  are  exceedingly 
dainty  and  interesting  objects.  After  the  calyptra,  which  is  the 
remains  of  the  archegonium,  and  the  operculum,  or  lid,  have  been 
thrown  off,  there  are  still  teeth  that  act  hygrometrically,  that  is,  open 
and  close  with  varying  degrees  of  moisture,  and  so  control  the  dis- 
persal of  the  spores.  Children  should,  of  course,  be  encouraged  to 
collect  the  larger  and  prettier  mosses  when  they  are  available. 

In  spite  of  the  long  droughts  of  California,  wherever  there  are  shaded 
nooks  we  are  pretty  sure  to  find  some  of  our  hardy  ferns.  Ferns  can 
be  made  a  very  impressive  text  for  teaching  the  relation  of  climate  to 
vegetation.  Like  liverworts  and  mosses,  they  must  have  moisture  for 
fertilization,  but  they  cannot  endure  entire  dessication  as  can  the 
other  two  groups.  The  nature  of  their  foliage,  also,  and  other  condi- 
tions, render  a  certain  amount  of  moisture  imperative ;  so  in  our 
country,  and  in  others,  there  are  areas  of  level,  treeless  lands,  hundreds 
of  miles  in  extent,  quite  destitute  of  ferns.  On  the  other  hand  ferns 
are  specially  adapted  to  regions  of  excessive  moisture.  We  have 
some  narrow,  sunless  canons  that  illustrate  this,  but  generally  chil- 
dren will  have  to  get  this  idea  from  greenhouses  and  from  pictures. 
Kerner,  speaking  of  the  mountain  regions  of  Jamaica,  says  :  "  Here 
are  found  some  five  hundred  ferns  and  a  large  number  of  mosses  and 
liverworts.  The  level  or  sloping  ground,  rocks,  the  forest  floor  and 
decaying  tree  trunks,  all  are  covered  with  ferns  of  every  shape  and 
size  ;  there  are  groves  of  tree  ferns,  the  trunks  of  trees  are  invested, 
right  up  to  the  crown,  with  delicate  green  fronds,  whilst  tiny  represen- 
tatives of  the  filmy  ferns  have  actually  taken  up  their  abodes  on  the 
foliage  leaves  themselves." 

Of  the  ferns  mentioned  in  the  Reader,  Polypodium  Californium, 
Kaulf.,  is  very  common  in  the  coast  ranges.  It  grows  rapidly  and  ma- 

45 


SUPPLEMENT. 

tures  spores  during  the  winter  season.  It  belongs  to  a  large  family  that 
adapts  itself  to  many  climates  and  conditions.  Kerner  tells  of  poly- 
pody leaves  in  a  dark  canon  that  grow  five  feet  long.  The  golden- 
back  fern,  Gynmnogramme  tricing  ularis,  Kaulf.,  is  widely  distributed 
in  California,  but  the  silver-back,  which  is  merely  the  variety  viscosa, 
is  limited  to  the,  southern  counties,  being  apparently  better  adapted  to 
dry  habitats  ;  it  is  common  on  Catalina  Island  and  in  the  mountains  of 
San  Bernardino  and  San  Diego  counties.  The  most  common  maiden- 
hair fern  in  the  coast  ranges  is  Adiantum  emarginatum>  Hook.;  the 
delicate  Venus-hair,  A.  capillus-veneris,  is  found  along  waterfalls  and 
springy  places  in  Southern  California,  and  the  fan-shaped  frond  of 
A.pedatum  is  found  occasionally  in  the  south  and  rather  commonly 
farther  north;  the  last  species  is  common  in  our  Eastern  States,  and  in 
cultivation  here.  The  coffee  fern,  Pellcsa  andromedcefolia,  Fee. ,  and  the 
bird- foot  fern,  P.  ornithopus.  Hook.,  are  widely  distributed  and  hardy. 
They  often  survive  the  summer  without  dying  down,  but  their  main 
growth  is  during  the  winter  season.  The  lace  and  woolly-back  ferns, 
various  species  of  Cheilanthes  and  Notholcena,  inhabit  either  dry 
hillsides  or  high  altitudes.  The  bracken,  Pteris  aquilina,  Linn.,  is  the 
most  widely  distributed  of  all  ferns ;  it  seems  to  be,  even  in  our 
climate,  a  summer  rather  than  a  winter  plant ;  so  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia we  find  it  in  the  canons,  along  streams,  where  it  attains  a  con- 
siderable height,  or  in  pine  woods  in  the  mountains,  where  it  is  less 
luxuriant.  Woodwardia  radicans,  Smith.,  which  is  mirrored  in  the 
pools  of  so  many  of  our  mountain  streams,  is  a  veritable  tropical  fern, 
being  also  native  to  Peru,  Abyssinia,  India  and  Java.  Every  California 
child  should  know  this  fern  of  ours,  and  in  most  localities  it  is  probably 
possible  for  the  teacher  to  obtain  cut  leaves  at  least.  This  fern  may 
be  successfully  grown  as  a  garden  plant.  One  of  the  shield  ferns, 
Aspidium  rigidum^  Swartz.,  or  the  variety  argutum,  Eaton,  is  com- 
mon in  well  shaded  places,  and  is  sometimes  so  luxuriant  that  it  is 
mistaken  for  Woodwardia.  Another  shield  fern,  with  simply  pinnate 
leaves,  Aspidium  munitum>  Kaulf.,  No.  5,  Fig.  28, is  common  in  the 
north  and  also  in  the  higher  altitudes  in  the  south  ;  it  is  graceful  and 
very  hardy,  and  is  frequently  seen  in  cultivation.  The  lady  fern, 
Asplenium  felix-foemina,  Bernh.,  is  always  a  favorite  ;  it  is  not  rare 
in  northern  woods,  but  it  is  seldom  found  in  Southern  California. 

There  are  excellent  reasons  for  encouraging  children  to  become 
acquainted  with  all  available  native  ferns  ;  ferns  are  naturally  attrac- 
tive, and  are  very  easily  and  satisfactorily  preserved  ;  their  habits  are 
marked  and  interesting,  and  their  adaptations  easily  read.  If  the 
order  of  the  Reader  has  been  followed,  an.  entire  fern  plant,  such  as 

46 


CHAPTER    VI 

the  Poly  podium,  with  its  numerous  fibrous  roots,  strong  root-stock, 
and  prominent  woody  bundles  and  veins,  should  be  made  a  text  for 
reviewing  the  physiology  of  higher  plants,  especially  the  functions  of 
woody  tissue.  The  habits  and  adaptations  of  the  ferns  are  perhaps 
sufficiently  emphasized  in  the  Reader.  Fern  leaves  are  very  cleverly 
disposed  in  the  bud,  the  delicate  tissue  is  infolded,  and  the  stronger, 
woody  tissue  forms  a  spherical  screen  about  it  ;  at  the  same  time  the 
petiole,  or  its  continuation,  the  mid-rib,  is  an  arch  that  pries  up  the 
soil,  then  straightens  itself  and  draws  out  the  unfolding  leaf.  The 
devices  for  guarding  against  both  too  much  and  too  little  evaporation 
are  similar  to  those  possessed  by  other  plants  in  the  same  habitats. 
The  reason  for  the  immunity  of  ferns  from  the  attacks  of  animals  is  not 
so  obvious.  They  are  also  said  to  be  little  troubled  by  fungi,  but  the 
golden-back  is  sometimes  infested  with  a  rust. 

The  spore-cases  of  ferns  are  remarkably  attractive  objects  under 
the  microscope  ;  they  are  very  easily  mounted  and  do  not  require 
high  powers.  The  Polypodium  in  February  is  likely  to  have  spore- 
cases  in  all  stages  of  development,  those  forming  the  darkest  brown 
spots,  being,  perhaps,  cases  that  have  already  thrown  their  spores.  It 
is  not  really  at  all  strange  that  the  growth  of  ferns  from  the  spore  should 
have  been  unknown  until  the  days  of  microscopes.  The  superstitions 
about  fern  "seeds"  are  quite  characteristic  of  the  science  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  There  was,  indeed,  one  skeptical  spirit  who  proved 
that  one  need  not  go  alone  nor  use  magic  spells  to  collect  the  "seeds,"' 
but  he  did  not  dream  of  proving  by  experiment  whether  or  not  they 
were  seeds.  The  arrangement  and  coverings  of  the  spore-cases,  or 
sporangia,  form  a  basis  for  the  classification  of  our  ferns.  As  has 
been  noted,  some  sori,  as  the  collection  of  sporangia  are  called,  are 
naked,  others  are  protected  by  rolled  back  margins,  others  by  a 
special  membrane  called  the  indusium. 

There  is  an  exquisite  little  floating  plant,  the  Azolla,  sometimes 
called  the.water  fern,  that  is  common  in  still  water.  Single  plants 
are  not  more  than  half  an  inch  long,  but  in  the  mass  their  tints  of 
pale  green,  purple  or  almost  red,  are  very  attractive.  The  reproduc- 
tion of  our  Azolla  has  been  carefully  worked  out  by  Professor  Camp- 
bell, of  Stanford  University. 

The  Equisetum,  or  horsetail  of  the  picture,  is  the  most  common 
one  in  California.  The  fruiting  cones  are  mature  in  March  and 
April,  when  the  food-making  fronds  are  just  beginning  to  develop. 
There  is  another  form  of  Equisetum  with  a  long,  unbranched  stem , 
the  fruiting  cones  being  borne  at  the  end.  As  noted  in  the  Reader, 
the  spores  of  the  Equisetum  are  hygrometric  ;  when  dry  they  cling 

47 


SUPPLEMENT 

together  more  or  less  by  means  of  their  long  arms,  and  are  widely 
scattered  by  the  wind.  When  a  moist  place  is  reached,  they  fold 
their  arms  and  rest,  sometimes  locking  the  arms  around  some  object 
that  serves  as  an  anchor.  Selaginella  is  not  deemed  sufficiently 
attractive  or  common  to  appear  in  the  Reader  ;  its  near  relative,  the 
Ivycopodium  of  the  greenhouses,  is  a  very  dainty  plant,  and  its  spores 
are  easily  found.  A  greater  club-moss,  known  as  ground  pine,  is  used 
in  our  Eastern  States  for  Christmas  wreaths,  and  sometimes  finds  its 
way  here.  The  "  resurrection  plant "  of  the  Texan  plains  is  also  a 
kind  of  Lycopodium. 


48 


CHAPTER  VII. 


SOME   EARLY    FLOWERS. 

The  aim  of  this  chapter  is  to  teach  the  structure  and  function  of 
flowers.  Of  course  the  children  will  need  to  become  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  technical  names  of  the  parts  of  the  flower,  before  this 
or  succeeding  chapters  can  be  easily  followed  ;  any  simple  available 
flower  can  be  used  for  drill  in  names.  The  fact  that  the  parts  of  the 
flowers  are  modified  leaves,  is  not  suggested  in  the  Reader  except  in 
the  peony  illustration,  Nos.  1-6.  If  it  seem  best  to  develop  this  idea, 
the  peony  affords  good  material.  Some  of  the  sepals  are  very  similar 
to  foliage  leaves,  others  are  obviously  the  expanded  petioles  of  simi- 
lar leaves  with  the  foliaceous  part  wanting,  while  the  petals  are  so 
similar  to  these  latter  sepals  that  they  can  sometimes  hardly  be  dis- 
tinguished from  them.  The  evolution  of  stamens  is  not  so  obvious  ; 
at  first  thought  one  might  infer  that  the  filament  is  the  petiole,  and 
the  anther  the  blade  of  the  leaf  with  its  interior  cells  developed  as 
pollen  grains  ;  but  forms  intermediate  between  stamens  and  petals, 
as  No.  2  in  the  drawing,  indicate  that  the  anther  rises  between  the 
petiole  and  the  blades,  the  blade  being  usually  wanting ;  there  are 
traces  of  blade  in  such  anthers  as  the  violet  has.  Cultivated  roses, 
indeed  most  double  flowers,  more  commonly  than  the  peony,  show 
organs  in  this  transition  stage  of  petals  from  stamens.  It  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  imagine  a  pistil  of  the  peony  as  a  leaf  folded  on  the  midrib, 
and  bearing  ovules  on  its  margins  ;  but  botanists  by  no  means  agree 
as  to  what  part  of  the  leaf  is  modified  to  become  the  ovary.  Some  hold 
the  theory  that  the  base  of  the  petiole  becomes  ovary,  the  remain- 
der of  the  petiole,  style,  when  it  is  present,  and  the  blade,  stigma. 
The  evolution  of  compound  pistils  is  explained  by  various  theories  ; 
so,  since  the  botanical  doctors  disagree  on  this  point,  it  seems  best  for 
all-round  teachers  to  avoid  putting  any  theory  dogmatically. 

When  we  consider  the  function  of  flowers,  there  are  plenty  of  defi- 
nite, universally  accepted  ideas  to  develop  and  emphasize.  Formerly, 

49 


SUPPLEMENT 

a  man  was  persecuted  as  a  heretic  if  he  did  not  consider  our  world 
as  the  center  of  the  universe,  and  man,  the  creature  for -whose  benefit 
all  the  rest  of  the  universe  was  created.  So  flowers  existed  for  the 
gratification  of  man's  sense  of  beauty,  or  possibly  their  color  might 
indicate  some  magical  qualities,  but  no  one  1  bought  of  the  use  of 
flowers  to  plants,  nor  of  the  use  to  flowers  of  their  beauty,  fragrance, 
and  infinite  variety  of  form  and  color.  Obviously,  flowers  exist  for 
the  production  of  seed,  but  the  significance  of  the  opening  of  flowers, 
the  fact  that  they  expose  their  essential  organs  to  the  atmosphere 
instead  of  uniting  sperm  and  egg  cells  within  closed  receptacles, 
could  not  be  understood  until,  in  our  own  times,  the  principles  of 
nature's  preference  for  cross  fertilization  had  become  recognized. 
Given  the  key,  a  study  of  the  various  means  for  carrying  out  this  end, 
involving  as  it  does  the  marvelous  relations  between  flowers  and 
insects,  has  become  a  fascinating  pursuit  to  naturalists. 

As  remarked  before,  actual  observation  of  the  process  of  fertiliza- 
tion, that  is  of  the  union  of  the  egg  and  sperm  cells,  requires  skillful 
microscopic  work,  for  both  kinds  of  cells  are  imbedded  in  tissues, 
since  they  must  be  protected  from  the  atmosphere.  If  sufficiently 
thin  sections  of  pistils  during  the  process  of  fertilization  can  be  cut, 
it  is  seen  that  the  pollen  grain  germinates  on  the  stigma,  sending  out 
a  tube  which  makes  its  way  through  the  tissues  of  style  and  ovary,  and 
through  the  micropyle  of  the  ovule,  so  that  one  of  the  two  protoplasts, 
or  rather  spermatoplasts,  at  the  end  of  the  tube  may  be  brought  into 
contact  with  the  egg  cell  in  the  ovary  ;  the  nuclei  of  these  two  cells 
fuse,  and  it  is  now  possible  for  the  growth  of  the  embryo  to  begin. 

The  conveyance  of  pollen  from  anther  to  stigma,  on  the  other 
hand,  can  be  easily  observed,  especially  in  our  climate  of  almost 
constant  sunny  weather,  and  interest  is  almost  sure  to  grow  with 
observation.  Very  few  flowers  indeed  are  restricted  to  self-pollina- 
tion ;  inconspicuous,  greenish  flowers  may  depend  on  the  wind  for 
cross  pollination  though  insects  often  help  in  the  pollination  of 
flowers  that  usually  escape  the  notice  of  human  kind.  Flowers  con- 
spicuous for  color  or  fragrance,  and  those  that  provide  honey,  are,  in 
our  climate,  almost  always  sure  to  receive  insect  help.  This  fact, 
together  with  many  devices  and  adaptations,  will  appear  as  we  study 
the  individual  flowers  in  this  and  in  succeeding  chapters. 

Perhaps  some  preface  is  necessary  with  regard  to  the  uses  of  color 
to  flowers.  That  other  colors  than  green  serve  to  render  flowers  con- 
spicuous, and  so  point  them  out  to  flying  insects,  cannot  be  doubted, 
but  it  must  not  be  concluded  that  color  in  flowers  can  have  no  other 
use  or  significance.  Red  and  kindred  colors  convert  light  into  heat 

50 


CHAPTER    Vll 

and  assist  in  the  most  important  of  plant  functions,  the  manufacture 
of  carbo-hydrates.  Other  functions  of  these  colors  are  known,  and 
studies  of  the  physiology  of  color  in  plants  are  developing  truths  that 
should  make  us  beware  of  interpreting  color  of  flowers  with  reference 
to  insect  visits  solely.  Still  there  seems  to  be  no  sufficient  ground  for 
discarding  the  old  theory  that  white  and  yellow  flowers  are  best 
adapted  to  the  lower  insects,  white  being  of  course  also  best  for  night 
pollination,  and  that  the  various  shades  of  blue  and  red  appeal  most  to 
guests  of  higher  rank,  bees  having  a  decided  preference  for  blue  and 
violet,  and  humming  birds  for  red.  Unquestionably  white  and  yellow 
are  the  most  conspicuous  colors  against  a  green  background,  and  as 
recent  investigations  seem  to  indicate  that  the  lower  insects  have 
little  sense  of  color,  the  greatest  contrast  must  be  most  successful  with 
them.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  color  of  by  far  the  greater  number  of 
flowers  whose  honey  and  pollen  is  accessible  to  short  tongues,  is 
white  or  yellow.  In  some  countries  tables  have  been  carefully  pre- 
pared with  a  view  of  discovering  the  relation  between  the  colors  of 
flowers  and  the  seasons.  White  is  the  prevailing  color  in  spring- 
time, before  the  visits  of  higher  insects  can  be  depended  upon,  yellow 
coming  next.  Kerner  suggests  that  pollen-loving  insects  choose 
yellow  flowers  because  yellow  is  the  usual  color  of  pollen.  Although 
we  have  no  definite  data  in  California,  it  will  probably  be  generally 
conceded  that  yellow  is  the  prevailing  tone  of  our  early  flora  ;  and 
there  is  no  doubt,  in  Southern  California  at  least,  that  scarlet  flowers 
are  most  abundant  during  the  summer  months  and  that  they  have  the 
same  habitat  as  humming  birds. 

The  theory  that  higher  guests  prefer  blue  and  red,  does  not  imply 
that  they  never  share  with  humbler  guests  the  hospitality  of  white 
and  yellow  flowers.  Any  one  who  watches  the  flowers  and  their 
guests  in  the  field,  knows  that  butterflies  flit  along  all  brightly  colored 
flowers,  though  they  usually  choose  to  sip  honey  from  deep  recepta- 
cles, which  are  probably  more  common  in  blue  and  red  flowers.  The 
business-like  bee  clearly  considers  abundance  of  fare  befo're  color,  and 
humming  birds  are  frequently  seen  sipping  honey  from  flowers  that 
are  not  red.  Still  the  experiments  of  Lubbock  and  others  seem  to 
prove  that,  other  conditions  being  equal,  bees  will  always  choose 
blue  ;  and  it  is  in  harmony  with  this  theory  that  many  of  our  blue 
flowers,  the  Brodiaea,  many  Gilias,  some  Phacelias,  Salvias,  sages, 
Pentstemons  and  larkspurs,  for  instance,  keep  their  honey  accessible 
to  bees,  but  not  to  short-tongued  guests,  the  theory  being  that  these 
flowers  have  become  blue  through  the  selection  of  the  bees.  That 
hummingbirds  choose  scarlet, seems  almost  beyond  question.  The 

51 


SUPPLEMEN1 

birds  often  dart  at  scarlet  ribbons  or  other  articles,  and  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  our  scarlet  flowers  admit  no  other  guests,  except,  of 
of  course,  the  largest  butterflies  and  moths.  I  once  spent  several 
weeks  at  the  foot  of  a  slope  glowing  with  scarlet  Pentstemon,  while  a 
few  rods  away  was  an  equal  area  covered  with  the  blue  Gilia  virgata. 
The  Gilia  furnished  abundant  honey,  accessible,  of  course,  to  hum- 
ming birds,  but-  while  I  could,  at  almost  any  time  of  day,  count  a 
half  dozen  or  more  humming  birds  among  the  Pentstemons,  I  never 
once  saw  them  among  the  Gilias.  The  Gilias,  on  the  other  hand, 
were  thronged  with  bees. 

Some  good  botanists  advance  the  theory  that  red — excepting  shades 
allied  to  violet — is  distasteful  to  bees,  and  that  scarlet  may  be  invisi- 
ble to  them,  but  I  have  frequently  seen  hive  bees  collect  pollen  from 
scarlet  Pentstemons,  and  carpenter  bees  bite  through  the  tubes  of 
columbine  and  Zauschneria  for  honey,  while  the  dull  re&Scrophularia 
Californica  is  always  thronged  with  bees,  the  Scrophularia,  like  our 
peony,  being  among  our  exceptional  red  flowers  that  have  honey 
accessible  to  bees.  The  fact  that  insects  visit  consecutively  flowers  of 
the  same  species,  can  be  easily  verified.  They  do  not  always  distin- 
guish between  similar  species.  I  have  seen  bees  visit  indiscriminately 
Gilia  densiflora  and  G.  virgata.  Occasionally  color  seems  to  mislead 
them  ;  I  have  seen  a  bee  at  work  regularly  on  the  blue  Gilia  multi- 
caulis,  occasionally  alight  on  the  Brodicza  capitata,  but  usually,  no 
matter  how  many  flowers  are  intermixed,  the  bee  selects  only  one 
species  until  that  is  exhausted. 

The  more  common  peony  of  California  is  called  Pceonia  Brownii, 
Dougl.  That  in  the  south,  which  is  slightly  different  from  the  typical 
P.  Brownii,  is  sometimes  known  as  P.  Californica,  Nutt.  The  peony  is 
excellent  for  beginning  the  study  of  flowering  plants  ;  the  flowers  are 
large  and  simple,  and  the  foliage  and  underground  parts  are  typical  of 
plants  of  the  cool,  rainy  season.  The  flowers  obviously  bid  for  cross 
pollination.  In  the  field  I  have  usually  found  the  stigmas  past 
maturity  when  dehiscence  of  pollen  begins,  so  that  close  pollination 
was  impossible,  but  the  stigmas  of  flowers  kept  in  the  house,  remain 
moist  for  several  days,  and  an  insect  working  in  the  flower  might 
effect  close  pollination.  If  we  were  to  interpret  the  color  of  the 
flower  with  reference  to  pollination  alone,  we  should  expect  large  flies 
to  visit  it,  and  the  odor,  too,  is  somewhat  suggestive  of  carrion,  but,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  I  have  never  seen  it  visited  by  other  guests  than  bees 
and  little  thrips.  Really  the  color  of  the  flower  does  not  render  it  at  all 
conspicuous,  but  the  abundance  of  honey  and  pollen  more  than  com- 
pensates for  this  in  the  estimation  of  the  thrifty  bee.  If  we  must 

52 


CHAPTER    VII 

have  a  theory  for  the  color,  the  most  plausible  one  seems  to  be,  that 
it  helps  in  supplying  heat,  and  the  essential  organs  of  the  flower  are 
said  to  be  specially  sensitive  to  cold.  The  seeds  of  the  peony  mature 
during  the  summer  ;  I  told  that  the  fruits  (follicles)  explode  and 
fling  their  seeds, 

The  buttercup,  Ranunculus  Californicus,  Benth.,  gets  its  family 
and  generic  name  from  its  supposed  association  with  the  frog  pond, 
Ranunculus  meaning  tadpole.  This  species  is  abundant  on  moist 
hillsides.  The  peony  belongs  to  the  same  family,  Ranunculacese, 
because,  like  the  buttercup,  none  of  its  parts  are  united.  The  story 
of  the  pollination  of  the  plebian  buttercup,  with  its  indiscriminating 
hospitality,  is  rather  fully  told  in  the  Reader.  As  in  the  peony,  the 
stigmas  wither  early  when  the  flowers  are  freely  visited  by  insects. 
They  do  not  seem  to  be  capable  of  self  pollination,  although  close 
pollination  may  be  effected  by  insects  about  the  second  or  third  day. 
The  larger  insects  are  sure  to  alight  in  the  center  of  a  flower  like 
the  buttercup.  I  have  seen  large  flies  and  even  butterflies  work  as 
systematically  as  bees  in  gathering  every  drop  of  honey  from  this 
flower,  an  uncommon  occurrence,  I  think,  for  usually  flies  and  butter- 
flies work  intermittently  and  are  not  very  effective  agents.  The  little 
hooked  style  remains  as  part  of  the  fruit  (an  akene)  and  helps  to  dis- 
tribute the  seeds. 

Two  functions  of  the  appendages  of  the  cluster  lily,  or  Brodisea, 
have  been  noted,  they  serve  also  by  their  contrasting  color  to  guide 
the  guests  to  the  honey.  The  opening  buds  of  the  Brodisea  seem  to 
me  to  contain  even  more  honey  than  the  expanded  flowers ;  at  any 
rate,  bees  often  try  to  force  them  open,  and  every  visit  to  a  bud  means 
cross  pollination.  The  Brodisea,  because  of  early  flowering,  scant 
provision  of  honey,  and  limited  range  of  guests,  doubtless  needs  to 
be  able  to  pollinate  itself.  Its  fruits  are  capsules,  which  mature  late.  It 
is  easy  to  see  where  new  bulbs,  or  more  properly,  corms,  are  formed, 
but  it  is  not  so  obvious  how  the  upper  corm  retains  its  depth,  and 
how  the  side  corms  get  more  widely  separated.  The  key  to  the  mys- 
tery is  found  when  one  digs  up  a  colony  of  Brodiseas,  that  is,  a  larger 
plant  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  smaller  ones.  The  little  plants  forming 
this  ring  about  the  mother  plant,  have  sprung  from  the  side  corms  of 
last  year,  and  each  of  these  corms  has  sent  out  a  long  and  extraordi- 
narily thick  root,  that  by  contraction  is  pulling  it  directly  away  from 
the  parent  corm.  By  means  of  these  pulling  roots,  the  circle  of 
daughter  plants  widens  each  year  and  gets  farther  from  the  mother 
corm,  so  the  Brodiaea  is  well  disseminated  and  is  always  abundant, 
persisting  even  in  grain  fields  where  it  is  never  allowed  to  mature  seed. 

53 


SUPPLEMENT 

The  root-sto:k  of  the  violet,  Viola  pedunculata,  T.  &  G.,  is  a  very 
deeply  buried  underground  stem,  being  sometimes  eight  or  ten  inches 
down.  The  color  of  this  violet  is  not  in  conformity  with  the  ortho- 
dox coloration  theory  ;  it  seems  to  be  better  policy  in  this  case  for 
the  flower  to  make  itself  conspicuous  than  to  appeals  to  the  aesthetic 
sense  of  the  bees,  at  any  rate  this  yellow  violet  succeeds  better  in  Cali- 
fornia than  any  of  its  blue  congeners.  In  countries  of  greater  rain- 
fall, violets  often  produce  what  are  called  cleistogamic  flowers,  that  is, 
flowers  that  do  not  open  at  all,  but  fertilize  themselves  in  the  bud  ; 
but  I  have  not  succeeded  in  finding  such  flowers  in  our  climate.  In 
spite  of  rather  infrequent  insect  visits,  violets  mature  abundant  seed. 
The  seeds  are  usually  flung  from  the  capsule  as  the  valves  spring 
apart. 

The  shooting  star,  Dodecatheon,  affords  a  sharp  contrast  to  the 
peony  in  its  methods  of  pollination.  Providing  no  honey  and  little 
pollen,  it  must  be  showy  to  stand  any  chance  of  insect  attention,  and 
a  more  striking  combination  of  colors  cannot  well  be  devised.  Its 
device  for  self  pollination  at  the  last,  is  one  practiced  also  by  the 
nightshade.  I  have  rarely  seen  insects  visit  Dodecatheon  Clevelandi 
of  the  southern  valleys,  but  the  mountain  species  are  rather  frequently 
visited  by  bees.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  pedicels,  at  first  erect, 
recurve  to  allow  the  corolla  to  protect  the  pollen,  but  become  erect 
again  in  fruit.  The  capsules  contain  small  seeds  which  mature 
quickly.  The  seeds  are  distributed  by  what  Kerner  calls  the 
pepper-box  method,  and  a  very  effective  method  it  is.  In  some 
species  the  valves  of  the  capsule  separate  at  the  tip,  leaving  an  open- 
ing surrounded  by  minute  teeth  ;  in  others  a  small  lid  falls  off,  but  in 
both  cases  the  small  opening  allows  the  seeds  to  escape  only  when 
they  are  thrown  out  with  considerable  force  by  the  swaying  of  the 
capsules  in  the  wind.  The  advantages  of  massing  flowers  in  clusters 
should  be  much  emphasized.  Small  flowers  scattered  against  a  green 
background  are  invisible  to  insects  flying  at  any  considerable  height. 
There  is  some  suggestion  here  of  the  principle  of  cooperation,  which 
is  more  fully  developed  in  Chapter  XII  on  "  social  flowers." 

The  calla  is  treated  rather  fully  in  the  Reader.  The  difference  in 
temperature  between  the  interior  and  the  exterior  air  can  be  tested 
with  the  thermometer ;  it  may  be  several  degrees.  The  pistillate 
flowers  seem  to  me  still  receptive  after  the  dehiscence  of  thestaminate 
flowers  on  the  same  spadix,  and  callas  do  produce  seed  in  our  climate, 
whether  from  close  pollination  or  only  from  cross,  I  have  not  deter- 
mined. Neither  have  I  observed  the  Chinese  lillies  out  of  doors 
sufficiently  to  speak  of  their  pollination  ;  but  their  growth  from  the 

54 


CHAPTER    Vll 

bulb  resting  in  water  is  a  very  pretty,  interesting  process,  and  can 
be  easily  watched  in  the  schoolroom.  The  story  of  the  pollination 
of  the  iris  has  been  often  told.  Briefly  it  is  as  follows  : — The  way  to 
the  honey  is  marked  by  conspicuous  beards  on  the  reflexed  sepals  ; 
the  petals  are  the  three  ascending,  inflexed,  floral  leaves.  The  three 
innermost  leaf-like  organs  that  curve  outward  and  downward  toward 
the  sepals,  are  styles  ;  beneath  their  bifid  tips  are  small  white  shelves, 
whose  under  surface  is  stigmatic.  The  anthers  also  lie  close  beneath 
the  styles  and  dehisce  downward.  Now  if  a  guest  is  large  enough  to 
be  of  use  to  the  flower,  he  must,  on  entering,  via  the  honey  guide  on  a 
sepal,  strike  his  head  against  the  stigma  and  immediately  afterward 
brush  it  against  a  fresh  supply  of  pollen  from  the  overarching  anther. 

Of  the  other  early  wild  flowers  likely  to  be  encountered  in  col- 
lecting for  this  lesson,  those  on  shrubs  or  trees  will  be  treated  in  the 
next  chapter  and  its  supplement,  some  having  been  already  noted  in 
Chapter  V  ;  others  will  form  the  subjects  of  succeeding  chapters. 

The  miner's  lettuce,  or  Indian  lettuce,  Cl&ytonia  perfoliata,  Donn., 
grows  always  in  shady  places,  and  is  easily  recognized  from  its  succu- 
lent leaves,  which  are  united  at  the  bases  forming  little  saucers,  the 
upper  pair  holding  the  cluster  of  small  white  or  pinkish  flowers.  In 
specially  favorable  places  I  have  seen  these  flowers  large  enough  to 
rival  their  .Eastern  cousins,  the  spring  beauties  ;  these  larger  flowers 
were  much  frequented  by  bees,  and  were  dependent  on  them  for  pol- 
lination, but  usually  the  flowers  are  inconspicuous  and  pollinate 
themselves.  The  chickweed,  Stellaria  media,  With.,  is  very  ubiqui- 
tous at  this  season  in  shady  places,  in  both  cultivated  and  untilled 
soil.  It  is  a  dainty  little  plant  with  its  small,  white,  star-like  flowers, 
which  have  five  bifid  petals  and  usually  but  three  perfect  stamens. 
Along  one  edge  of  its  weak,  four-angled  stem  is  a  line  of  hairs  that 
are  very  interesting  under  the  microscope,  their  function  being  to 
absorb  rain  and  dew  for  the  benefit  of  the  plant. 

The  California  four-o'clock,  Mirabilis  Calif ornica,  Gray,  is  a  vigor- 
ous perennial,  growing  with  the  cactus  on  the  hills  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. Its  showy  magenta  flowers  are  usually  out  in  January.  It 
is  a  troublesome  plant  to  identify  because  what  appears  to  be  calyx  is 
really  an  involucre,  and  the  apparent  corolla  is  calyx.  It  is  not  avail- 
able for  in-door  study,  because  the  flowers  open  only  out  of  doors  ; 
they  open  about  two  or  three  p.  m.,  one  day  and  close  at  eleven  a.  m. 
of  the  next.  For  field  study  these  flowers  are  excellent;  the  prominent 
anthers  and  stigma  lie  against  the  lower  part  of  the  flower,  the  stigma 
always  beyond  the  anthers,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  whether  or  not  the 
guests  pollinate  them. 

55 


SUPPLEMENT 

If  time  and  material  admit,  it  may  be  well  to  collect  other  early- 
blooming  members  of  the  lily  family  and  deduce  the  family  character- 
istics. In  Southern  California  one  might  find  the  graceful  brown 
lily,  Fritillaria  biflora,  Lindl.,  some  of  the  wild  onions  (Alliums), 
the  Muilla  (Allium  spelled  backwards),  a  slender,  onion-like  plant, 
whose  petals  are  white  with  green  lines,  and  Zygadenus  Fremonti, 
Torr.,  a  coarse  perennial  with  a  tall  panicle  of  greenish-white  flowers 
and  narrow,  parallel-veined  leaves.  It  will  usually  be  best,  however, 
to  wait  for  more  showy  lilies,  and  defer  the  consideration  of  family 
traits  until  Chapter  XIII. 


56 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  TREES. 

Trees  appeal  to  many  people  who  take  little  notice  of  smaller 
plants,  and  teachers  will  do  well  to  foster  this  natural  interest.  As 
has  been  already  suggested  in  Chapters  III  and  V,  different  types  of 
trees,  at  least  one  evergreen  and  one  deciduous,  should  be  under  con- 
tinuous observation,  so  that  their  behavior  at  different  seasons  can  be 
noted.  A  study  of  the  habits  and  physiology  of  trees,  especially  of 
their  relation  to  climate,  is  surely  better  suited  to  school  work  in  our 
climate  than  the  detailed  study  of  naked  twigs  frequently  pursued 
where  trees  are  leafless  or  dormant  half  of  the  school  year.  Of  course 
the  position  of  buds  and  their  plan  of  development,  is  most  easily 
observed  on  leafless  trees.  It  may  be  well  to  note  that  buds  are 
situated  where  it  is  most  convenient  to  distribute  food  to  them,  either 
terminally  or  in  the  axils  of  leaves  where  the  conductive  tissue 
branches  off  from  main  stem  to  leaf  stem.  Naturally  there  will  be 
room  for  the  development  of  only  a  limited  number  of  buds  each 
year,  but  when  regularly  developed  shoots  are  destroyed,  it  is  interest- 
ing to  watch  the  activity  of  dormant  buds  ;  indeed,  the  promptness 
of  trees  to  rally  from  accident  or  mutilation  is  little  short  of  marvel- 
ous. The  topping  of  shade  trees  furnishes  an  instructive  illustration  ; 
nature  at  once  covers  the  cut  surface  with  new  tissue  from  which  arise 
numerous  buds,  and  soon  the  tree  is  provided  with  a  new  and  denser 
crown.  We  frequently  see  a  close,  and  somewhat  circular  group  of 
sycamores  that  have  originally  arisen  as  suckers  from  the  stump  or 
roots  when  the  parent  stem  has  been  cut  down. 

Distinguishing  between  trees  that  branch  excurrently  and  decur- 
rently,.  seems  to  me  fruitless  work  for  children,  especially  as  cultivated 
trees  are  rarely  allowed  to  develop  naturally  ;  but  hardly  too  much 
stress  can  be  placed  on  the  different  characteristics  of  the  trees 
adapted  to  a  dry  climate,  and  those  which  with  us  can  survive  only 
near  streams  or  under  irrigation.  Of  course,  in  our  dry  atmosphere, 

57 


SUPPLEMENT 

densely  umbrageous  trees,  such  as  are  characteristic  of  humid  coun- 
tries like  England,  are  not  found  at  all,  but  there  is  a  marked  con- 
trast between  the  Eucalyptus,  live  oak  and  pepper  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  sycamore,  maple,  walnut  and  umbrella-tree  on  the  other. 

A  fuller  study  of  the  stems  of  trees  than  has  been  suggested  in  the 
Reader,  could  doubtless  be  carried  on  with  much  interest,  and  profit, 
especially  in  tire  upper  grades.  All  text  books  of  Botany  treat  ot 
stem  structure  rather  fully,  and  the  more  recent  ones,  such  as  Spald- 
ing's  and  Bergen 's,  include  the  physiology  of  the  stem  also.  From 
twigs  of  various  ages,  and  from  pieces  of  firewood,  one  can,  without 
the  microscope,  make  out  layers  of  bark,  the  cambium  layer,  wood, 
pith,  medullary  rays,  and  rings  of  annular  growth.  Very  beautiful 
wood  sections,  prepared  by  R.  B.  Hough,  Lowville,  N.  Y.,  are  often 
included  in  school  supplies  ;  Mr.  Hough  has  recently  added  sections 
of  many  California  woods  to  his  stock.  These  sections  show  clearly 
to  the  unaided  eye,  the  medullary  rays,  rings  of  annual  growth,  and 
even  to  some  extent,  cellular  structure.  For  the  details  of  cellular 
structure  the  compound  microscope  is  of  course  necessary.  The  out- 
side skin,  or  epidermis,  of  stems  perishes  early,  and  the  layer  of 
green  cells  just  beneath  the  corky  layer  also  disappears  in  early  years. 
The  corky  layer,  so  greatly  developed  in  cork  oak,  is  protective  in 
several  ways ;  against  transpiration,  changes  of  temperature,  attacks 
of  fungi,  mechanical  injuries,  and  so  forth.  It  contains  the  same 
tallow-like  substance,  suberin,  as  the  cuticle  of  mature  leaves.  The 
inner  layer  of  bark  consists  of  bast  tissue  ;  it  contains  long,  tough 
cells,  which  serve  for  strength  only,  and  more  delicate  ones,  called 
sieve  cells.  The  soft  bast  tissue  plays  a  very  important  part  in  the 
nutrition  of  the  plant,  for  it  conducts  the  elaborated  sap  from  the 
leaves  toward  the  roots,  the  medullary  rays  serving  to  convey  the 
sap  laterally  from  bark  to  pith  The  woody  tissue  is  made  up  of  wood  cells 
and  wood  ducts,  or  vessels,  as  shown  in  Fig.  10,  Chapter  II ;  it  serves  for 
support  and  for  the  conduction  of  crude  sap  from  roots  to  leaves. 
The  pith,  which  forms  a  main  part  of  the  young  stem,  usually  dis- 
appears in  time  ;  where  it  exists,  it  conducts  elaborated  sap  and 
serves  to  store  food  during  the  dormant  period,  the  soft  bast  and 
medullary  rays  also  serving  the  same  purpose.  The  amount  of  food 
stored  in  stems  above  ground  is  very  considerable.  In  the  trunks  of 
old,  yet  vigorous  trees,  a  considerable  part  of  the  wood,  as  well  as  the 
pith,  is  dead  ;  the  outer  part  of  the  bark,  too,  is  constantly  wearing 
away,  sometimes  falling  in  plates  or  shreds  ;  but  in  every  active  tree 
there  must  be  living  wood  to  conduct  crude  sap  from  roots  to  leaves, 
and  living  bark  to  distribute  elaborated  sap.  Between  these  living 

58 


CHAPTER    VIII 

cylinders  of  wood  and  bark  is  the  cambium  layer,  the  layer  of  new 
cells,  which  during  the  growing  season  multiply  very  rapidly,  becom- 
ing new  wood  and  new  bark.  It  is  the  delicacy  of  these  new  cells  in 
spring  time  that  makes  it  possible  to  slip  the  cylinder  of  bark  off  the 
wood  of  willow  and  elder  twigs.  Early  in  the  growing  season  the 
wood  cells  have  comparatively  thin  walls  and  long  diameters,  later 
the  tissue  is  much  more  compact ;  this  gives  rise  to  the  rings  of 
annual  growth. 

The  coverings  of  buds,  the  disposition  of  leaves  in  the  bud,  and  the 
devices  for  protecting  the  young  leaves  as  the  buds  develop  into 
shoots,  are  interesting  topics.  The  nature  of  the  wrappings  can  be 
made  out  by  the  older  pupils.  That  the  scales  are  often  modified 
leaves,  is  clearly  shown  in  developing  walnut  buds,  there  being  many 
intermediate  forms  between  the  simple  scale  and  the  compound  leaf. 
Many  of  our  trees  use  stipules  for  bud  wrappings,  not  only  the  fig, 
India  rubber  and  magnolia,  but  the  apple,  cherry  and  their  kind,  and 
the  oak,  alder  and  others.  In  the  sycamore  the  collar-like  structure  is  a 
pair  of  united  stipules,  but  in  this  case  the  stipules  become  a  per- 
manent part  of  the  foliage.  Leaves  in  the  bud  have  their  conductive 
tissue  very  prominent,  but  the  parenchyma  is  not  well  developed,  and 
there  is  little  or  no  cuticle  on  the  epidermal  cells.  As  the  leaves 
throw  off  their  wrappings  the  delicate  parenchyma  cells  are  in  special 
need  of  protection  against  over-transpiration,  and  the  same  devices 
that  serve  this  purpose,  also  protect  against  cold  and  moisture.  It  is 
not  against  frost  chiefly  that  protection  is  needed ;  leaves  need  to 
retain  at  night,  as  far  as  possible,  the  heat  acquired  during  the  day, 
since  growth  goes  on  night  and  day.  The  various  protective  devices 
are  easily  seen.  Often  the  soft  tissue  is  plaited,  folded  or  crumpled 
in,  the  veins  only  being  exposed.  Usually  the  young  leaves  assume 
a  vertical  position  ;  besides  this,  there  are  coverings  of  varnish,  or 
woolly  or  silky  hairs.  Sometimes  there  are  membranous  stipules 
that  grow  and  continue  to  screen  the  young  leaves  until  they  have 
attained  considerable  size,  as  in  the  magnolia  and  the  India  rubber. 
The  use  of  the  red  color  to  young  leaves  has  already  been  noticed  in 
Chapters  III  and  V.  This  color,  and  the  vertical  position,  seem  to  be 
all  the  protection  the  young  leaves  of  the  Eucalyptus  and  the  pepper 
require. 

The  willow  in  mind  when  this  chapter  was  written,  was  Salix 
lasiolepis,  Benth.,  an  early  flowering  species  common  throughout  the 
state  ;  other  species  might  differ  in  detail.  The  pistil  of  the  willow, 
when  the  fruit  is  mature,  splits  into  its  two  carpels.  The  fluff  attached 
to  the  seeds  floats  them  on  water  as  well  as  in  the  air.  Another  aid 

59 


SUPPLEMEN1 

to  the  distribution  of  willows,  is  their  habit  of  striking  root  so  readily 
that  severed  twigs  are  very  likely  to  become  new  plants.  The  poplar, 
or  cottonwood,  Populus,  is  nearly  related  to  the  willow,  as  is  apparent 
on  examining  catkins  and  fruit.  There  are  several  stamens  on  a 
disk  in  each  staminate  flower,  and  a  pistil  may  be  composed  of  three 
or  four  instead  of  two  carpels.  The  catkins  come  early,  before  the 
leaves.  This  tree  is  not  very  common  in  Southern  California,  but  is 
well  worth  observation  where  it  does  occur. 

The  Sycamore,  Platanus  racemosa^ourn.y  alder,  Alnus  rhombi- 
folia,  Nutt.,  walnut,  Juglans  Calif  arnica,  Wats.,  or  the  oak,  Quercus, 
may  be  studied  as  typical  of  wind-pollinated  plants.  The  flowers  of 
the  walnut  are  the  easiest  to  study  on  account  of  their  size,  but  it 
would  be  unfortunate  to  miss  any  of  the  others  that  can  be  observed 
by  the  children  in  the  field.  The  sycamore  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  our  canon  trees  ;  it  sometimes  attains  an  imposing  size  ;  one  is 
known  to  be  nine  feet  in  diameter.  In  the  spherical  flower  clusters 
each  pistil  or  each  stamen  is  a  flower.  The  pollen  is  protected  by  the 
connectives  of  the  anthers,  which  fit  closely  together  until  the  pollen 
is  mature  and  the  weather  dry  ;  then,  by  the  shrinking  of  this  tissue, 
the  anthers  are  sufficiently  separated  to  allow  little  clouds  of  pol- 
len to  escape  with  every  breeze.  The  staminate  catkins  of  the  alder 
mature  and  fall  in  December  or  January,  and  soon  the  pistillate 
clusters  become  little  cone-like  fruits ;  the  leaves  come  usually  in 
March.  The  delicate  beauty  of  these  straight,  slender  trees  bursting 
into  leaf,  is  one  of  the  delights  of  our  spring  time.  Each  walnut 
flower  has  a  calyx,  there  are  many  stamens  in  each  staminate  flower, 
and  the  pistillate  flowers  have  inferior  ovaries  and  minute  petals. 

Nearly  all  wind  pollinated  plants  with  staminate  catkins  have  some 
provision  for  the  temporary  deposition  of  pollen  ;  the  cottonwood 
has  the  same  device  as  the  walnut  ;  the  anthers  of  pines  and  firs 
deposit  pollen  on  the  back  of  neighboring  scales  ;  the  anthers  of  the 
sycamore  have  their  connective  tissue  expanded  at  the  ends  like  nail 
heads,  and  the  pollen  is  lodged  here,  and  so  on.  The  pollen  lying  in 
loose  little  heaps  is  very  easily  lifted  by  the  wind,  and,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  pollen  is  best  distributed,  not  by  a  strong  wind,  but  by  gentle 
rising  currents  of  hot  air.  About  one-tenth  of  all  flowering  plants 
are  pollinated  by  the  wind  ;  some  of  their  characteristics  are,  small, 
inconspicuous  flower,  large  stigmas  and  abundance  of  pollen,  easily 
accessible  to  the  wind.  Bees  frequently  collect  pollen  from  walnuts 
and  other  trees  of  this  class,  but  they  are  not  likely  to  be  of  any 
service. 

The  oak  has  quite  as  interesting  leaf  buds,  flowers  and  fruits  as  the 

60 


CHAPTER    VIII 

other  trees.  Birds  as  well  as  rodents  collect  acorns,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  they  aid  in  propagating  the  oak,  since  woodpeckers  deposit 
the  acorns  in  holes  made  in  the  bark  of  trees,  and  blue  jays  put  them 
in  hollows  in  trees,  into  the  pith  of  broken  elder  branches  and  like 
places  ;  whether  the  numbers  lost  and  scattered  by  the  birds  is  consid- 
erable I  do  not  know.  The  elder,  Sambucus  glauca,  Nutt.,  is  often 
of  sufficient  size  to  be  counted  with  trees.  It  is  nearly  evergreen  in 
our  climate,  and  is  rather  attractive,  with  its  fresh  foliage  and  large 
clusters  of  white  flowers.  Its  flowers  are  pollinated  by  insects  ;  the 
fleshy  fruits  will  be  considered  later.  The  Spanish  Californians  use 
the  leaves  medicinally  ;  the  fruit,  also,  is  esteemed. 

The  maple,  Acer  macrophyllum,  Pursh,  and  the  bay,  or  laurel, 
Umbellularia  Calif ornica>  Nutt.,  of  our  canons,  are  not  generally 
accessible  for  class  work  ;  neither,  in  Southern  California,  are  any  of 
our  native  conifers,  except  such  cultivated  species  as  the  Monterey 
pine,  Pinus  insignis,  Dougl.,  the  Monterey  cypress,  Cupressus  micro- 
carpa,  Hook.,  and  the  "  big  tree,"  Sequoia  gigantea,  Decaisne.  These, 
or  any  other  cultivated  conifers,  can  be  watched  as  they  push  out  new 
leaves,  shed  their  clouds  of  pollen  and  mature  their  cones.  Most  of 
them  are  in  flower  in  January  or  February.  The  staminate  flowers 
of  the  pine  are  most  impressive,  but  the  fertile  clusters  and  young 
cones  of  the  cypress  are  generally  more  accessible.  The  staminate 
catkins  of  Coniferse  consist  merely  of  scales  bearing  pollen  sacs,  two 
each  in  the  pine,  and  from  three  to  five  each  in  the  Sequoia  and 
cypress.  The  fertile  flowers,  which,  after  fertilization,  develop  into 
cones,  consist  of  scales  bearing  naked  ovules,  two  each  in  the  pine, 
more  in  the  cypress.  The  illustration  shows  staminate  and  fertile 
flowers  of  an  introduced  pine  and  cypress,  and  the  development  of  a 
cypress  cone  from  the  tiny  green  cluster  on  the  branch  to  the  woody 
cone  that  has  opened  and  allowed  the  seeds  to  escape.  This  develop- 
ment is  easily  seen  on  the  trees  ;  the  fleshy  scales  close  over"  the 
ovules  soon  after  pollination,  grow  larger  and  more  woody,  and 
ultimately  separate  to  allow  the  seeds  to  escape.  Conifers  are  very 
deliberate  in  all  of  their  habits  ;  many  of  them,  like  the  Monterey 
pine  and  cypress,  require  two  years  to  ripen  their  seeds,  and  some 
retain  their  seeds  even  five  years.  Our  native  conifers  and  trees  gen- 
erally, will  be  further  referred  to  in  Chapters  XIII  and  XIV.  Some 
facts  as  to  the  size  and  age  of  trees  will  be  given  in  the  Supplement 
to  Chapter  XIII.  It  is  well  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  measuring  the 
finest  trees  available. 

The  awakening  of  the  deciduous  trees  of  our  orchards  is  full  of 
interest  from  the  time  that  the  swelling  buds  impart  wondrous  tints  to 

61 


SUPPLEMENT 

the  trees  in  mass,  up  to  the  development  of  the  fruit.  Bud  protection 
can  be  easily  discerned  ;  the  flowers  and  fruit  should  be  studied  as  they 
appear.  The  stone  fruits,  apricots,  peaches,  plums,  etc.,  are  classi- 
fied as  drupes  ;  apples,  pears  and  quinces,  as  pomes.  These  two 
groups  are  usually  included  in  the  rose  family.  If  the  teacher  looks 
forward  to  some  work  in  classification,  the  children  should  make  and 
preserve  drawings  showing  the  parts  of  these  flowers,  also  of  straw- 
berry, raspberry  or  blackberry  flowers  when  they  are  accessible. 
Except  for  occasional  variations,  such  as  usually  occur  in  cultivated 
plants,  these  flowers  all  have  five  sepals,  five  petals  and  many  stamens, 
all  situated  on  the  calyx.  The  pistils  vary  ;  the  ovary  of  the  drupe 
group  is  superior  and  consists  of  one  carpel,  the  pome  group  has  five 
inferior  ovaries  imbedded  in  the  receptacle,  while  the  so-called  berries 
have  many  small  pistils  situated  on  a  convex  receptacle.  The  pollin- 
ation of  the  flowers  should  be  noted  ;  they  usually  seem  capable  of 
self  pollination,  still  they  provide  much  honey,  and  obviously  adver- 
tise this  by  color  and  fragrance.  Experiments  seem  to  show  that 
many  trees  of  this  family  fruit  better  when  cross  pollination  is 
effected.  It  is  said  that  there  are  varieties  of  pears  that  must  be  pol- 
linated not  only  from  another  tree,  but  from  a  different  variety.  Our 
wild  blackberries,  and  some  kinds  of  cultivated  strawberries,  have 
frequently  only  staminate  or  pistillate  flowers,  and  so  require  cross 
pollination. 

The  subject  of  the  development  and  distribution  of  fleshy  fruits 
should  not  be  missed  later  on.  By  comparing  flower  and  young  fruit 
it  is  seen  that  the  ovary  wall  of  a  drupe  becomes  the  edible  part. 
The  ovary  walls  of  pomes  are  simply  the  five  chartaceous  pods  that 
contain  the  seeds ;  botanists  do  not  agree  as  to  whether  the  fleshy 
part  we  eat  is  altogether  receptacle,  or  both  receptable  and  calyx. 
Obviously  the  juicy  part  ot  the  strawberry  is  the  greatly  enlarged 
receptacle,  what  are  commonly  called  seeds  being  entire  pistils.  But 
the  receptacle  of  the  blackberry  remains  white  and  tough  ;  the  juicy 
part  of  the  fruit  is  the  mass  of  ovaries,  each  ovary  having  become  a 
drupe.  The  receptacle  of  the  raspberry  remains  on  the  bush  when 
we  pick  the  united  drupes.  So  these  berries  are  not  berries  at  all  in 
the  botanical  sense,  a  berry  being  a  several  seeded  ovary,  pulpy 
throughout,  such  as  the  elderberry,  cranberry,  currants,  grapes, 
oranges,  tomatoes,  etc. 

Until  their  seeds  are  mature  all  of  the  fleshy  fruits  are  inconspicu- 
ous and  have  some  bitter  or  possibly  poisonous  qualities  ;  then  by 
chemical  changes  the  juices  become  sweet  and  well  flavored. 
Obviously  the  taste,  together  with  the  color  and  fragrance,  are  devices 

62 


CHAPTER    VIII 

for  tempting  animals  to  eat  the  fruits.  Sometimes  the  seeds  are  not 
swallowed  but  are  thrown  away,  more  often  they  pass  through  the 
alimentary  canal.  Many  experiments  have  been  made  to  determine 
to  what  extent  seeds  of  fleshy  fruits  are  injured  by  the  digestive 
fluids ;  only  the  most  general  results  can  be  stated  here.  Seeds 
swallowed  by  birds  are  retained  only  a  short  time,  from  one-half  to 
three  hours,  and  a  small  percentage  only  are  injured ;  on  the  other 
hand,  more  than  half  of  those  swallowed  by  animals  are  rendered 
incapable  of  germination.  That  some  poorly  protected  seeds  like  oats 
and  barley,  escape  injury  is  evident  to  everyone  who  has  used  fresh 
stable  manure  as  a  fertilizer.  If  fleshy  fruits  are  not  eaten,  but  simply 
fall  to  the  ground,  the  decaying  fleshy  part  anchors  the  seeds  to 
the  soil. 

To  return  to  the  topic  in  hand,  the  awakening  of  the  trees  :  Young 
figs  appear  with  first  leaf  buds,  early  in  the  year.  The  pistillate 
flowers  in  the  interior  can  be  readily  discerned.  The  pollination  of 
some  kinds  of  figs  is  described  by  Kerner  in  Vol.  II,  page  159-160,  of 
his  "  Natural  History  of  Plants."  Briefly,  the  story  of  our  common 
species  is  .this  : — One  tree  bears  edible  figs,  containing  only  pistillate 
flowers  ;  another  tree  of  the  same  species  bears  what  are  called  capri- 
figs,  having  near  the  orifice  staminate  flowers,  but  farther  up,  gall 
flowers,  i.  e.,  undeveloped  pistillate  flowers  in  which  the  egg  of  a 
wasp  has  been  placed.  The  female  wasps  in  escaping  from  the  capri- 
fig  become  covered  with  pollen  ;  they  pass  at  once  to  younger  figs  to 
lay  their  eggs,  and  if  they  chance  to  select  a  tree  bearing  figs  with 
developed  pistillate  flowers,  they  of  course  pollinate  them  and  the 
seeds  become  fertile  ;  the  wasp's  egg  rarely  develops  in  these  figs. 
If  the  wasp  enters  caprifigs,  her  eggs  will  develop  in  the  imperfect 
pistillate  flowers,  but  the  caprifigs  fall  off  before  becoming  juicy  • 
Kerner  states  that  while,  in  some  districts,  the  caprifigs  are  culti- 
vated and  hung  on  the  fertile  trees  to  ensure  pollination,  this  is  quite 
a  waste  of  labor,  for  the  flavor  of  the  figs  is  not  in  the  least  improved 
by  fertilization  ;  and,  since  figs  are  now  propagated  by  cuttings,  it 
matters  not  at  all  that  the  seed  is  infertile. 

It  is  unsafe  to  make  any  general  statements  about  the  habits  of  some 
of  our  introduced  plants,  especially  if  they  are  irrigated.  Of  Eucalyptus 
and  Acacia,  for  instance,  we  have  many  species  that  come  from  very 
different  climates.  The  point  insisted  upon  is  that  children  be 
encouraged  to  watch  continuously  some  tree  or  trees  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  school  building,  so  that  their  observations  can  be  tested  and  dis- 
cussed. A  few  additional  facts  about  trees  will  be  brought  out  in 
Chapter  XIV. 

63 


SUPPLEMENT 

There  is  no  sharp  line  between  trees  and  shrubs,  sometimes  habitat 
determines  whether  a  given  species  is  to  become  a  tree  or  a  shrub. 
In  their  habits,  shrubs,  as  well  as  trees,  present  much  of  interest,  and 
there  is  every  reason  why  children  should  be  helped  to  a  growing 
acquaintance  with  the  most  common  and  most  attractive  shrubs  of 
their  district.  Some  deciduous  shrubs  that  awaken  very  early,  have 
been  already  noted  in  Chapter  V,  the  poison  oak,  some  species  of 
Ribes,  and  Ceanothus  crassifolius.  The  poison  oak,  Rhusdiversiloba, 
T.  and  G.,  is  very  often  erect,  but  against  a  steep  bank  or  a  tree  it 
frequently  asserts  its  power  to  climb  by  rootlets.  It  blossoms  in  early 
spring,  and  the  bees  frequent  its  greenish  white  flowers.  Rhus  trilo- 
bata,  Nutt.,  somewhat  resembles  the  poison  oak,  but  it  is  usually  lower 
and  has  smaller,  greener  and  more  numerous  leaves.  The  twigs  of 
this  Rhus  are  used  by  the  Indians  for  their  finest  basket  work,  and  its 
fruits  are  eaten.  Rhus  integrifolia,  B.  &  H.,  and  R.  ovata,  Wats.,  of 
the  south,  are  evergreen,  and  form  dense  thickets.  They  are  some- 
times called  Indian  lemonade  bushes  on  account  of  the  acid  outer 
coat  of  the  fruits,  and  sometimes  mahogany  trees  because  of  their 
hard  wood.  Their  pretty  white  or  rose-colored  flowers  appear  in 
December  or  January,  They  provide  honey,  and  are  cross-pollinated 
by  bees,  some  plants  being  staminate,  others  pistillate.  Another 
Rhus  of  Southern  California,  R.  laurina,  Nutt.,  is  abundant  near  the 
sea  and  on  the  coast  islands.  Its  large,  evergreen  leaves  are  very 
aromatic  aud  have  often  much  red  coloring  matter,  suggesting  the 
common  name  sumac  ;  it  blooms  later  than  the  others. 

In  the  south  the  wild  lilac,  or  Ceanothus,  already  described,  is  soon 
followed  by  C.  divaricatus,  Nutt.,  and  other  species.  In  the  north 
C.  thyrsi/torus ',  Esch.,  attains  tree-like  proportions.  The  flowers  of 
all  these  species  provide  honey,  some  of  them  lavishly,  and  the  honey 
is  much  appreciated  by  the  bees.  The  stamens,  which  at  first  are 
distant  from  the  pistils,  later  on  bend  over  and  place  their  anthers 
against  the  stigmas. 

The  yellow- flowered  currant,  Rides  tenuiflorum^  Lindl.,  blooms  in 
January  or  February,  just  in  time  to  be  pollinated  by  the  earliest 
carpenter  bees.  The  gooseberries  noted  in  Chapter  V,  are  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  more  common  R.  spdtiosum,  Pursh.,  with  tubular, 
scarlet  flowers.  These  flowers  are  usually  too  long  for  any  but  hum- 
mingbirds and  the  largest  bees  to  get  honey  in  a  legitimate  way ;  but 
smaller  bees  sometimes  steal  the  honey  by  biting  through  the  calyx 
tube.  This  Ribes  has  beautiful,  glossy  leaves  and  is  densely  clothed 
with  spines,  so  that  it  is  gaining  favor  with  gardeners  as  a  hedge 
shrub. 

64 


I    U  IN  JL  V  JjJTlOJ 

LIFORH1 
CHAPTER    VIII 

There  are  many  other  shrubs  common  in  the  foothills.  The  most 
common  "scrub"  oak  is  Quercus  dumosa,  Nutt.;  in  habit  it  is 
similar  to  other  live-oaks.  The  California  "holly"  is  Heteromeles 
arbutifolia,  Roem.;  it  is  only  its  red  berries,  maturing  in  early  winter, 
that  suggest  the  name  holly  ;  its  leaves  do  not  at  all  resemble  the 
English  holly,  and  its  flowers  are  white  and  come  in  midsummer. 
There  is  a  wild  cherry,  Prunus  ilicifolia,  Walp.,  with  pretty,  ever- 
green, spiny-tipped  leaves  that  is  really  like  the  true  holly.  This 
is  a  very  common  shrub  on  dry  hillsides  ;  under  more  favorable  con- 
ditions it  becomes  a  handsome  tree.  Another  wild  cherry,  P.  demissa, 
Walp.,  has  deciduous  leaves  and  fruit  with  more  pulp  ;  in  Southern 
California  this  cherry  is  limited  to  the  mountains.  Both  cherries 
have  fragrant,  white  flowers  in  spring  time,  and  are  much  visited  by 
bees.  Perhaps  our  most  useful  shrub  is  Rhamnus  Calif  arnica,  Esch., 
since  from  its  bark  the  highly  prized  medicine,  cascara  sagrada,  is 
obtained.  The  common  name  of  this  shrub  is  coffee  plant,  since  its 
dark  red  fruits,  with  their  two  great  seeds,  resemble  coffee  berries. 
The  true  wild  honeysuckle,  Lonicera  (or  Caprifolium),  with  pale 
flowers  and  perfoliate  leaves,  blooms  in  late  spring  or  in  summer  ;  its 
near  relative,  the  Symphoricarpus,  or  snow-berry,  matures  its  white 
fruits  in  autumn.  The  botanical  name  for  the  manzanita  is  Arcto- 
staphylos;  for  the  mad  rone,  Arbutus,  and  for  the  mountain  mahogany, 
Cercocarpus  betulccfolius,  Greene  ;  all  of  these  bloom  in  early  spring 
time. 

There  are  some  showy  shrubs  that  are  not  so  widely  distributed. 
The  tree  poppy  will  be  noticed  in  the  next  chapter  ;  Fremontia  Cali- 
fornica,  Torr.,  is  a  very  striking  shrub  of  the  drier  foothills  of  the 
Sierras.  There  are  shrubs  or  small  trees  belonging  to  two  genera  of 
the  family  Malvaceae  ;  theLavatera  assurgentiflora,  Kell.,  or  tree  mal- 
low, has  large,  rose-colored  flowers,  and  nutritive,  mucilaginous  leaves, 
of  which  grazing  animals  are  very  fond  ;  this  malva  is  a  native  of  the 
coast  islands,  and  has  become  rather  common  about  seaboard  towns. 
Several  species  of  Malvastrum  in  the  southern  foothills  are  shrubs, 
one  of  them,  M.  Davidsoni,  Robinson,  is  sometimes  fifteen  feet  high. 
Like  other  plants  of  arid  regions,  they  are  of  slender  habit,  and  their 
gray-green  foliage  forms  a  fitting  background  for  the  exquisite, 
delicate-pink  flowers.  The  introduced  shrubs,  the  castor  oil  plant, 
and  the  tree  tobacco,  are  referred,  perhaps  unjustly,  to  the  chapter  on 
weeds,  and  a  number  of  the  lower  shrubby  plants  that  bloom  in  sum- 
mer are  described  in  Chapter  XV.  The  woody  climbers,  the  wild 
blackberry  and  the  grape,  should  be  noted  in  field  work  with  the 
shrubs  and  trees. 

5  65 


SUPPLEMEN7 


CHAPTER   IX. 


SOME  SPRING   FLOWERS. 

With  children  who  have  already  considerable  acquaintance  with 
our  wild  flowers,  it  will  be  well  to  emphasize  the  relationship  of  the 
plants  of  this  chapter.  The  poppy  family  has  marked  traits  ;  two  of 
these,  the  fact  that  the  sepals  fall  off  as  the  flower  expands,  and  that 
there  are  twice  as  many  petals  as  sepals,  will  serve  to  place  all  the 
members  we  are  likely  to  meet.  The  family  as  a  whole  is  a  very 
showy  one.  The  Spanish  name  "  copo  de  oro,  "  cup  of  gold,  is  the 
best  one  for  the  Eschscholtzia  Californica^  Cham.  There  are 
some  kindred  species  difficult  to  distinguish  from  this,  but  this  is  by 
far  the  most  common,  and  it  varies  greatly  in  size  and  color.  In  rich 
soil  in  the  Mohave  Desert,  the  size  of  this  poppy  and  its  richness  of 
color  are  magnificent ;  the  inhabitants  speak  of  these  poppy  fields, 
not  as  golden,  but  as  blood-red,  and  in  the  distance  this  is  the  color 
effect.  The  normal  time  for  blooming  is  in  early  spring,  but  poppy 
flowers  may  be  found  at  almost  any  time  of  the  year.  If  a  first  crop 
is  destroyed  in  grain  fields,  a  second  may  spring  up  in  summer,  or  the 
earliest  autumn  rains  may  rouse  the  plants  with  strong  perennial 
roots. 

The  pollination  of  the  poppy  is  typical  of  flowers  that  furnish  only 
pollen.  The  color  renders  it  very  conspicuous,  the  amount  of  pollen 
is  considerable,  and  it  is  carefully  hoarded.  The  cream  cup,  tree 
poppy,  and  the  two  large  white  species  furnish  even  greater  supplies 
of  pollen.  The  sleepy  habit  of  the  plants  is,  of  course,  only  a  device 
for  protecting  pollen.  Kerner  states  that  the  older  flowers  simply 
furl  each  petal  like  a  tent  over  its  own  pollen,  but  I  have  rarely  found 
this  true  of  uncultivated  Echscholtzias,  and  it  is  not  a  common  habit 
in  our  gardens  ;  the  petals  usually  roll  up  together  as  in  the  bud. 
Kerner  states  also  that  the  stigmas  of  the  smaller  flowers  are  short 
enough  to  be  in  contact  with  the  anthers,  while  in  larger  flowers  they 
are  above  the  anthers,  a  condition  which  by  no  means  always  holds 

66 


CHAPTER   IX 

with  the  poppies  at  home ;  neither  do  I  find  that  they  fling  their 
fruits  quite  away  from  the  receptacle  ;  all  of  which  only  shows  that 
plants  behave  differently  under  different  conditions.  Our  poppies 
can  sometimes  pollinate  themselves  when  they  are  open  ;  they  are 
almost  sure  to  do  so  as  they  close,  and  the  insects  that  seek  shelter  in 
them  must  also  effect  close  pollination  ;  still  much  pollen  is  carried 
from  flower  to  flower,  and  some  botanists  think  them  quite  infertile 
to  their  own  pollen.  It  is  probable,  though  it  has  not  been  proved,  that 
when  flowers  receive  both  their  own  and  another  flower's  pollen,  the 
foreign  pollen  is  prepotent. 

The  flame-colored  poppy,  Meconopsis  (Papaver)  heterophylhim,  to 
be  fully  appreciated,  must  be  seen  lifting  its  nodding  buds  and  satiny 
flowers  from  some  grassy  slope.  The  flowers  in  the  south  are  not  more 
than  an  inch  in  diameter,  in  the  north  they  are  sometimes  two  inches. 

The  tree  poppy,  Dendromecon  rigidum,  Benth. ,  rivals  the  Kshschol- 
tzia  in  splendor  ;  the  flowers  are  not  so  large  nor  so  deeply  colored, 
but  the  shrubs,  which  blossom  most  profusely,-  are  sometimes  fifteen 
feet  high.  In  Southern  California  the  tree  poppy  chooses  sandy 
washes,  and  while  the  plants  are  sometimes  washed  away  by  floods 
they  are  also  distributed  by  this  means ;  occasionally  one  gets 
stranded  within  the  city  limits  of  I^os  Angeles.  The  acme  of  showi- 
ness  is  attained  by  the  two  white  species,  Argemone  platyceras,  var. 
.hispida,  Prain,  and  Romneya  Coulteri,  Harv.  Both  have  great, 
crinkled,  white  petals  and  numerous  yellow  anthers,  and  the  bumble 
bees  fairly  wallow  in  their  pollen.  The  Argemone  is  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  southwest.  It  flowers  in  summer  and  loves  hot,  sandy 
washes.  I  have  seen  plants  six  feet  high  standing  alone  in  the  sand. 
The  Romneya  is  often  known  as  the  Matilija  poppv,  because  it  is 
abundant  in  a  canon  of  that  name  in  Ventura  County  ;  but  it  is  found 
in  many  other  canons  in  Southern  California,  and  is  gaining  rapidly 
in  favor  as  a  cultivated  plant.  The  cream  cup,  Platystemon  Calif 01- 
nicus,  Benth.,  is  of  more  modest  dimensions,  but  it  is  justly  a  great 
favorite  ;  it  often  quite  takes  possession  of  waste  or  semi-cultivated 
soil  and  produces  myriads  of  creamy  white  flowers.  In  exposed 
places  the  flowers  may  have  a  liberal  dash  of  red  coloring  matter. 
One  member  of  this  family,  common  in  damp  canons,  Platy stigma 
denticulatum ,  Greene,  is  remarkable  for  its  delicate  beauty  ;  it  has 
little,  star-like,  white  flowers  and  is  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  a  lily 
unless  one  discovers  the  three  green  sepals  of  the  bud. 

The  mustard  family,  Cruciferse,  has  also  marked  characteristics,  as 
noted  in  the  Reader.  Most  Cruciferae  have  dehiscent  fruits,  and 
when  the  two  valves  separate  at  maturity,  a  transparent  partition 

67 


SUPPLEMENT 

remains,  framed  by  the  placenta  or  seed-bearing  portion  of  the  fruit. 
Some  of  the  plants  of  this  family  that  children  would  be  likely  to  find, 
are  enumerated  in  Chapter  XIV  of  the  Reader.  The  shepherd's 
purse,  Capsella  Bursa-pastoris^  Medic.,  and  the  pepper  grass,  Lepi- 
dium  nitidum,  Nutt.,  are  common  lawn  or  wayside  weeds  that  begin 
flowering  in  January.  Their  tiny  white  flowers  continue  to  develop 
at  the  end  of  the  cluster,  long  after  the  lower  part  has  ripened  its 
fruits.  The  fruits  are  tiny  ;  those  of  the  shepherd's  purse  are  obcor- 
date,  the  others  are  round.  The  botanical  name  for  the  watercress  is 
Nasturtium  officinale,  Tour n.;  for  sweet  alyssum,  Lobularia  (formerly 
Alyssum)  matitima,  Desv.,  and  for  the  wild  radish  that  overruns 
neglected  places,  Raphanus  sativus,  Linn.  All  three  of  these  can  be 
found  in  bloom  almost  any  month.  The  wild  turnip,  Brassica  caui- 
pestris^  Linn.,  usually  known  as  mustard,  is  very  common  in  the  out- 
skirts of  civilization,  blooming  earlier  than  the  black  mustard  ;  it  has 
smooth  leaves,  the  stem  leaves  clasping  at  the  base.  The  field  mustard, 
or  black  mustard,  Brassica  nigra,  Koch.,  is  further  treated  in  the 
Reader  in  Chapter  XVI.  The  lace-pod,  Thysanocarpus  curvipes, 
Hook.,  has  minute  white  flowers,  but  exceedingly  pretty  fruits  ;  the 
fruits  are  not  dehiscent,  that  is,  the  ovary  does  not  open  and  discharge 
the  seed,  but  it  develops  a  dainty,  lace-like  margin,  called  a  wing, 
which  aids  in  seed  distribution.  The  plant  is  slender,  but  bears  many 
long  racemes  of  pale-green,  or  pinkish  lace-pods ;  it  blooms  in  spring 
time  in  rather  sheltered  places. 

The  western  wall-flower,  Erysimum  asperum,  DC.,  is  a  stiff, 
rough,  hardy  plant,  with  large,  fragrant,  orange-colored  flowers  ;  it 
begins  to  bloom  in  mid-winter,  and  its  long  racemes  last  for  many 
weeks.  Having  more  handsome  flowers  than  most  Cruciferse,  the 
wall-flower  can  afford  to  be  more  exclusive,  and  its  sepals  cohere  so 
closely  that  it  has  practically  a  tube  about  half  an  inch  deep.  The 
stigma  is  mature  when  the  bud  begins  to  expand,  and  as  the  expan- 
sion is  very  deliberate  and  the  honey  abundant,  the  pollination  ot  any 
flower  is  likely  to  occur  before  the  dehiscence  of  its  own  pollen  begins. 
All  Cruciferse  mature  stigmas  before  shedding  pollen,  and  as  honey  is 
usually  fairly  abundant  and  is  frequently  accessible  to  any  insect, 
there  must  be  a  considerable  amount  of  cross  pollination.  So  far  as 
I  have  observed,  there  has  always  been  some  provision  for  self  pol- 
lination later  on,  and  insects  often  effect  close  as  well  as  cross 
pollination.  There  are  many  other  common  Cruciferae,  but  it  would 
be  impossible  to  distinguish  them  clearly  without  tedious  description 
and  technical  terms. 

CEnothera  bistotta,   Nutt.,   is  a   southern    species,   but   there   are 

68 


CHAPTER    IX 

several  other  species  with  similar  flowers  and  habits.  The  beach 
species  is  very  handsome,  and  serves  well  as  a  type  of  seashore  or 
desert  vegetation,  having  very  long  roots  that  lie  near  the  surface 
ready  to  utilize  every  fog  and  dew,  and  foliage  well  protected  from  the 
intense  light  and  heat.  When  children  can  do  field  work  on  the  beach 
they  should  be  encouraged  to  measure  roots  and  find  different  sorts  of 
protective  coverings.  CEnothera  Calif  arnica,  Wats.,  sometimes  grows 
very  luxuriantly  in  warm,  sandy  soil.  It  is  a  very  handsome  plant 
with  its  silver-grey  foliage  and  large,  white,  flowers,  which  finally 
take  on  rosy  tints.  The  flowers  open  about  five  p.  m.,  and  usually 
close  before  noon  on  the  next  day,  but  on  the  sand  dunes  of  the 
Mohave  Desert,  I  have  seen  them  remain  open  for  thirty-six  hours. 
They  are  obviously  adapted  for  pollination  by  large  night  moths ;  the 
honey  is  sometimes  an  inch  deep  in  the  long  tubes,  and  both  the 
sticky  stigmas  and  the  long  anthers  covered  with  a  webby  mass  of 
coarse  pollen,  are  directly  in  the  way  of  the  entering  guest.  The 
yellow  evening  primrose,  either  CEnothera  biennis,  Ijnn.,  or  some  of 
its  varieties,  is  more  commonly  met  than  the  white  species  ;  it  has 
rather  coarse  foliage  and,  while  evidently  adapted  to  night  pollination, 
it  is  frequently  found  with  flowers  open  throughout  the  day.  Gode- 
tias,  Clarkia  and  Zauschneria  are  taken  up  in  Chapter  XV. 

The  five  sympetalous  families  or  orders  grouped  together  in  the 
Reader  are  very  nearly  related  ;  the  first  four  are  well  represented  in 
California.  It  is  easy  to  memorize  both  the  characteristics  that  are 
common  to  all,  and  the  character  of  the  pistil,  which  determines  the 
family.  The  order  Poletnoniacese,  to  which  the  genus  Gilia  belongs, 
has  always  a  three-celled  ovary  and  three  stigmas  ;  Hydrophyllaceae, 
including  the  genera  Nemophila  and  Phacelia,  has  a  two-celled  ovary 
and  a  style  more  or  less  two  cleft ;  Boraginaceae  is  the  heliotrope  and 
forget-me-not  family,  and  has  always  a  four-parted  ovary,  but  one 
style  and  one  stigma  ;  Solanacese,  the  potato  and  nightshade  family, 
has  but  one  ovary,  which,  in  many  genera  becomes  a  berry  in  fruit. 

Gilias  are  particularly  abundant,  and  are  very  easily  recognized  as 
Gilias,  though  the  specific  name  may  be  difficult  to  determine.  The 
kinds  pictured  in  the  Reader  are  very  abundant  in  Southern  Califor- 
nia. Gilia  multicauliS)  Benth.,  varies  extremely  in  size,  according  to 
its  habitat.  In  poor,  dry  soil  it  may  be  only  a  few  inches  high  and 
consist  of  a  single  stem  bearing  two  or  three  pale  flowers  ;  in  more 
favorable  places  it  may  be  a  foot  high,  with  clusters  so  many-flowered 
that  unless  one  has  learned  to  know  it  from  its  fragrance,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish  it  from  G.  achillecsfolia,  Benth.  G.  capitata, 
Dougl.,  more  common  in  the  north,  is  another  Gilia  of  similar  appear- 

69 


SUPPLEMENT 

ance  and  habits,  so  is  G.  tricolor,  Benth.,  except  that  its  flowers  are 
more  showy,  the  three  colors  being  pale  violet,  purple  and  gold.  I 
have  seen  this  last  Gilia  cover  acres  of  so-called  desert  land  in  the  Mo- 
have,  the  mass  of  color  being  a  striking  feature  of  the  landscape.  In  this 
locality  the  high  winds  preclude  insect  visits  much  of  the  time,  but  I 
have  seen  very  active  carpenter  bees  making  the  most  of  a  brief  lull 
in  the  wind  ;  besides,  the  anthers  bend  to  the  center  of  the  flower  so 
that  the  pollen  must  fall  down  the  throat  and  tube  and  so  come  in 
contact  with  the  stigmas  as  the  corolla  falls  There  is  a  pretty, 
golden  Gilia,  G.  aurea,  Nutt.,  that  is  also  able  to  flourish  in  hot,  sandy 
places  in  the  south  ;  its  flowers  are  niggardly  in  providing  honey,  and 
must  often  have  to  pollinate  themselves. 

G.  dianthoideS)  Endl.,  one  of  most  exquisite  of  California  wild 
flowers,  does  literally  carpet  many  a  sunny  spot  in  the  southern  sec- 
tions.  It,  too,  is  variable  in  habit ;  in  grassy  places  it  may  send  up 
branches  several  inches  high,  when  unshaded  it  may  spread  out  in 
densely  flowering  mats,  or  again  may  consist  of  a  single  stem  lifting 
a  flower  an  inch  or  so  above  the  earth.  A  species  very  nearly  related 
to  this,  G.  dichotoma,  Benth.,  is  named  evening  snow,  its  white  flowers 
opening  at  four  or  five  p.  m.,  and  closing  at  daybreak  ;  like  most 
night  pollinated  flowers  it  has  a  heavy  odor.  G.  micrantha,  Steud., 
and  some  allied  species  with  white  or  delicately  tinted  flowers,  do  not 
tell  the  story  of  their  pollination  so  clearly.  The  flowers  are  abun- 
dant in  late  spring,  or  during  the  summer  in  the  mountains  ;  the 
corolla  tubes  are  extremely  slender  and  sometimes  an  inch  or  more 
long,  so  that  only  large  butterflies  or  moths  can  reach  the  honey  ;  in 
the  valleys  the  flowers  usually  close  at  night,  but  in  the  mountains  I 
have  found  them  remaining  open  ;  the  stamens  in  the  mountain 
species  vary  in  length  but  the  styles  are  constant,  so  they  are  not,  as 
has  been  thought,  dimorphic;  I  have  reached  no  satisfactory  con- 
clusion about  them,  nor  about  the  G.  Californica.  This  latter  species, 
growing  in  masses  among  the  chapparal,  is  a  peerless  little  shrub,  and 
it  is  an  anomaly  indeed,  if  the  showiness  of  the  flowers  be  of  no  use 
to  the  plant. 

Of  the  Nemophilas,  N.  anrita,  Lindl.,  presents  by  far  the  most 
legible  story,  but  the  others  are  very  justly  popular  favorites. 
N.  insignis,  Dougl.,  is  perhaps  the  only  species  to  which  the  name 
baby  blue  eyes  should  be  applied  ;  certainly  it  has  few  rivals  in  blue- 
ness.  According  to  color  theories  we  should  expect  to  find  the  flowers 
in  close  alliance  with  the  bees;  they  have  five  pairs  of  appendages 
arranged  to  contain  honey,  but  those  I  have  examined  have  contained 
very  little,  and  the  amount  of  pollen  was  small.  The  flowers  close 

70 


CHAPTER   IX 

early  and  remain  closed  in  unfavorable  weather,  and  the  bees  seem  to 
seek  them  mainly  for  shelter.  Honey  is  hardly  perceptible  in  the 
exquisite,  pale  blue  N.  Menziesii,  H.  &  A.,  and  I  have  rarely  seen  it 
visited  ;  but  both  of  these  species  have  larger  flowers  in  the  north  and 
may  have  quite  a  different  story  of  pollination.  The  flowers  proba- 
bly pollinate  themselves  when  they  close. 

There  are  about  forty  species  of  Phacelias  in  California,  and  many 
of  them  are  nearly  allied  to  P.  tanacetifolia,  Benth.  The  leaves 
of  this  group  are  much  dissected,  being  bi-pinnate  or  tri-pinnate,  and 
the  flowers  are  nearly  always  of  some  shade  of  blue  ;  the  name  wild 
heliotrope  has  arisen  because  of  their  color  and  form  of  inflorescence, 
heliotrope  really  belonging  to  the  family  Boraginaceae.  The  flowers  of 
P.  ianacetifolia  seem  always  well  provided  with  honey,  which  is  well 
protected  and  excluded  from  all  but  useful  guests.  The  anthers  face 
upward  during  dehiscence,  and  the  stigmas  also,  when  they  mature, 
are  held  where  they  are  sure  to  be  struck  by  the  guest.  I  know  no 
native  flower  that  gets  a  greater  share  of  attention  from  the  bees  than 
this  species,  and  the  group  as  a  whole  is  very  successful.  There  are 
other  Phacelias  with  entire  leaves  ;  one  of  these,  P.  circinata,  Jacq.,  a 
rough,  hoary  plant,  is  very  widely  distributed  ;  it  bears  white  flowers 
in  late  spring  and  summer. 

A  considerable  number  of  Phacelias  have  notched,  viscid  leaves  ; 
four  of  these  species  with  large,  handsome  flowers  are  common  in  the 
south.  P.  grandiflora,  Gray,  has  mottled  blue  and  white,  rotate 
flowers  nearly  two  inches  in  diameter,  but  one  rarely  handles  the 
plant  a  second  time,  because  it  leaves  a  stain  like  iron  rust ;  it  is  also 
poisonous  to  some  people.  P.  viscida,  too,  has  rotate  flowers ;  they 
are  nearly  an  inch  in  diameter  and  are  often  a  very  intense  blue.  P. 
Whitlavid)  Gray,  and  P.  Parryi,  Torr.,  grow  in  rich  soil  along  river 
bottoms  or  banks  ;  the  flowers  of  both  are  a  rich  royal  purple,  those 
of  the  former  are  bell-shaped  and  are  commonly  called  Canterbury 
bells  ;  the  flowers  of  the  other  species  are  rotate  with  five  white  honey 
guides  near  the  centre.  Both  of  these  flowers  seem  to  depend  on  the 
splendor  of  their  attire  to  attract  guests,  for  they  supply  very  little 
honey  ;  large  bees  occasionally  visit  P.  Whitlavia  for  honey,  and  hive 
bees  often  collect  pollen  from  the  conspicuous  white  anthers  of  P. 
Parry  i. 

Besides  Nemophilas,  Phacelias,  and  the  Bllisia  mentioned  in  the 
Reader,  two  other  genera  of  Hydrophyllaceae  contribute  widely  dis- 
tributed plants  : — Emmenanthe penduliflora,  Benth.,  is  common  on 
dry  hillsides;  its  most  common  name  is  whispering  bells,  from  the  fact 
that  its  yellow,  bell-shaped  corollas,  instead  of  falling  off,  become  dry 

71 


SUPPLEMENT 

and  rustling,  and  cling  until  the  fruit  is  mature.  Eriodictyon  gluti- 
nosum,  Benth.,  is  the  yerba  santa,  whose  medicinal  value,  discovered 
by  the  Indians,  is  still  appreciated  by  the  medical  profession.  This 
species  is  generally  confined  to  the  mountains  of  Southern  California, 
but  the  species  E.  tomentosum,  Benth.,  is  common  in  lower  altitudes. 
The  Kriodictyons  are  shrubs  with  thick  leaves  and  bluish  flowers  in 
scorpioid  clusters  ;  the  leaves  of  the  yerba  santa  are  resinous,  and  the 
flowers  are  frequently  white.  E.  tomentosum  is  worthily  named,  for 
the  "tomen turn,"  or  dense  hairs,  clothes  not  the  leaves  only,  but 
stems,  calyxes  and  even  the  violet  corollas.  The  flowers  seem  to  be 
pollinated  by  bees. 

California  has  a  wild  heliotrope,  Heliotr opium  Curassavicum , 
Linn.,  a  low,  succulent  plant,  common  near  the  sea  and  in  moist  alkali 
soil  the  world  over  ;  it  blooms  in  summer,  having  small  white  or 
bluish-white  flowers.  Of  the  Borraginacese  that  bloom  in  the  spring 
time,  those  with  the  yellow  flowers  belong  to  the  genus  Amsinckia, 
and  the  white  ones  to  different  genera  not  agreed  upon  by  botanists. 
There  are  supposed  to  be  several  species  of  Amsinckia  in  Southern 
California,  but  the  one  so  common  as  a  roadside  weed  is  A.  spectabilis, 
F.  &  M.  The  ability  of  this  plant  to  withstand  drought,  is  probably 
its  strongest  point,  but  it  is  generally  well  equipped.  Its  flowers  are 
uncommonly  large  for  this  family  ;  they  have  abundance  of  honey  and 
prominent  honey  guides;  sometimes  they  are  slightly  irregular.  Any 
one  studying  their  pollination  will  be  impressed  with  the  variability 
in  the  length  of  stamens  and  pistils  ;  some  plants  have  flowers  with 
anthers  well  above  the  stigmas,  others  have  stigmas  always  above  the 
anthers.  If  it  were  not  for  many  intermediate  forms  we  should  con- 
sider these  flowers  dimorphic,  and  possibly  they  are  developing  in 
this  direction.  True  dimorphism  is  explained  in  any  book  that  treats 
of  pollination,  the  English  primrose  being  the  favorite  illustration. 
If  an  insect  come  from  a  plant  with  high  anthers  to  one  with  high 
stigmas  and  low  anthers,  it  cross  pollinates  this  flower,  and  pollen 
from  the  low  anthers  adheres  to  its  tongue  ;  passing  to  flowers  of  the 
other  form  with  this  supply  of  pollen,  the  insect  cross  pollinates  the 
low  stigmas  and  gets  a  fresh  supply  of  pollen  from  high  anthers,  and 
so  on.  There  are  also  flowers  with  well  marked  trimorphism  ;  I  have 
found  no  clear  case  of  either  among  native  California  flowers.  The 
bristly  calyx  of  Amsinckia  spectabilis,  which  gives  it  its  name  of 
"woolly  breeches,"  is  persistent  and  aids  in  seed  distribution. 

As  stated  above,  great  confusion  still  prevails  over  the  nomenclature 
of  our  wild  white  forget-me-nots  ;  three  genera,  Krynitzkia,  Plagio- 
bothrys  and  Pectocarya  are  represented  in  the  vicinity  of  Los 

72 


CHAPTER   IX 

Angeles.  The  one  in  the  illustration  in  the  Reader  is  perhaps  the 
most  attractive,  coming  as  it  does  against  the  delicate  background  of 
early  vegetation  ;  the  children  call  it  pop-corn  flower.  Many  others 
of  the  white  forget-me-nots  are  rough  or  prickly. 

The  family  Solanaceae  includes  the  nightshade,  potato,  tomato, 
Chili  pepper,  egg  plant,  tobacco,  tree  tobacco,  ground  cherry, 
"  Jimson  "  weed,  and  many  showy  cultivated  plants,  such  as  Petunia, 
Stramonium,  and  several  climbers  with  large,  handsome  flowers.  The 
common,  weedy  nightshade  of  the  south  is  Solatium  Douglasii^ 
Dunal.,  sometimes  considered  a  variety  of  S.  nigrum.  The  fragrant, 
blue  nightshade  is  .S.  Xanti,  Gray;  on  Catalina  Island  the  variety 
Wallacei  of  this  species  has  extremely  large,  handsome  flowers.  I 
have  yet  to  learn  of  any  case  of  poisoning  from  S.  Douglasii\  children 
frequently  eat  the  berries  with  impunity.  I  have  known  one  instance 
of  poisoning  from  the  handling  of  S.  Xanti.  The  pollination  of  both 
species  is  given  in  the  Reader.  The  tree  tobacco,  Nicotian  a  gla  uca, 
Tourn  ,  and  the  California  "Jimson"  weed,  Datura  meteloides,  DC., 
will  receive  attention  in  Chapter  XVI.  Our  native  tobaccos, 
N.  Bigelovii,  Wats.,  and  other  species,  are  disagreeable  herbs  hardly 
common  enough  to  merit  much  attention.  The  ground  cherry, 
Physalis  czquata,  Jacq.,is  a  rather  pretty  introduced  weed  not  uncom- 
mon in  loamy  fields.  It  has  nodding,  yellow  flowers  and  fruits 
enclosed  in  pretty  inflated  calyxes. 

Our  wild  morning-glory,  Convolvulus,  is  always  interesting  in  the 
field,  but  is  of  little  use  for  in- door  study  because  the  flowers  collapse 
so  quickly.  Cultivated  morning-glories  are  easily  and  quickly  grown 
in  our  climate,  and  their  twining  will  be  watched  with  much  interest ; 
it  is  readily  seen  that  the  tips  actually  revolve,  and  that  they  will 
revolve  in  but  one  direction.  The  most  common  wild  Convolvulus  of 
Southern  California  is  C.  occidentalis ',  Gray.  Its  flowers  provide  some 
honey,  but  it  is  so  hidden  by  a  combination  of  ovary,  stamens  and 
corolla  tube  that  I  have  never  yet  seen  an  insect  get  it  except  by 
biting  through  the  corolla.  Bees  sometimes  collect  pollen  from  the 
anthers  that  form  a  dome  over  the  forked  stigma,  and  in  doing  this 
they  must  effect  close  as  well  as  cross  pollination.  This  morning- 
glory  has  a  strong  perennial  root,  and  is  somewhat  persistent  even  in 
cultivated  fields,  but  the  Convolvulus  that  is  proving  so  troublesome 
in  vineyards  and  orchards  in  some  parts  of  the  state,  is  a  virile  Kuro- 
pean  weed,  C.  arvensis,  Iv.  The  dodder,  Cuscuta,  belongs  to  the  order 
Convolvulaceae,  but  will  be  considered  in  Chapter  XV. 

The  nodding  white  ~M.a.riposa.,Caloc/iortus  albus,  Dougl.,  is  found  in 
the  foot-hills  and  mountains  throughout  the  state,  and  one  can  hardly 

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SUPPLEMENT 

imagine  a  more  exquisite  flower.  The  yellow  globe  tulip,  C.  pulchel- 
lusy  is  common  north  of  Monterey  County.  C.  albus  is  frequently 
much  larger  than  the  one  in  the  illustration,  the  flowers  being  often 
an  inch  in  diameter.  I  have  seen  the  flowers  visited  by  flies  and 
beetles  only  ;  the  flowers  seem  capable  of  self  pollination.  Of  the 
cup  shaped  Mariposas,  perhaps  the  one  that  is  most  fittingly  named 
the  butterfly  tulip,  is  the  C.  venustus,  Benth.  It  is  rather  widely  dis- 
tributed ;  I  have  found  it  in  canons  bordering  the  San  Fernando 
Valley,  and  abundantly  at  Newhall.  The  corollas  vary  from  white 
to  violet,  rose  or  cream,  and  there  are  three  blotches  of  color  on  each 
petal,  the  upper  one  usually  red.  In  form  the  flowers  are  exquisite 
beyond  description.  C.  luteus,  var.  oculatus,  Wats.,  is  said  to  be 
equally  beautiful.  The  most  common  Mariposa  about  Los  Angeles 
and  other  adjoining  coast  towns,  is  the  one  illustrated,  C,  Catalincc, 
Wats.,  which  usually  shades  from  white  to  lilac  or  rose,  and  has  crim- 
son spots.  C.  splendens,  Dougl.,  is  common  in  the  south  ;  it  is  clear 
lilac  throughout,  and  occasionally  has  no  honey  glands  at  all.  There 
is  a  sturdy  yellow  Mariposa,  C.  davatus,  common  in  southern  canons, 
and  C.  luteus,  a  smaller  plant  with  yellow  flowers  is  also  found.  The 
very  hairy,  purple-blotched  C.  U  eedii,  var.  purpnrasccns,  Wats.,  is 
rather  abundant  in  the  south,  but  it  blooms  in  June  and  July  and  so 
misses  the  attention  it  deserves.  C.  Nuttallii,  of  the  high  mountains 
is  found  in  all  shades  from  cream-white  to  deep  purple.  The  flame- 
colored  Mariposa,  C.  Kennedyi,  Porter,  is  common  in  the  Mohave 
Desert.  As  implied  in  the  Reader,  it  seems  probable  that  these  Mari- 
posas must  often  fail  of  pollination.  The  sagmas  open  very  late,  and 
even  then  it  is  easy  for  an  insect  to  get  honey  or  pollen  without  strik- 
ing them.  I  have  never  found  honey  very  abundant,  and  the  hairs 
about  the  glands  must  be  a  veritable  thicket  to  a  small  insect ;  at  any 
rate  I  have  seen  insects  come  for  pollen  much  more  frequently  than 
for  honey.  The  bulbs  become  rather  deeply  buried ;  and  some 
species  produce  bulblets  freely  in  the  axils  of  the  lower  leaves. 

Perhaps  mention  should  be  made  of  a  section  of  Calochorti  not 
represented  in  the  south,  but  common  in  the  north,  the  group  popu- 
larly known  as  the  star  tulip  ;  the  flowers  resemble  those  of  the  globe 
group,  but  they  are  erect  or  nearly  so,  and  are  from  bell-shaped  to 
star-shaped  rather  than  globular;  they  are  of  various  tints,  and  are 
sometimes  known  as  "  mouse  ears,"  or  "  pussy  ears; '*  C.  Maweanus, 
L/eich.,  is  a  type. 

In  Southern  California  the  plants  considered  in  this  chapter  will 
usually  be  abundant  in  March  or  early  in  April.  The  next  three 
chapters  should  follow  as  promptly  as  possible,  especially  if  the  two 

74 


CHAPTER   IX 

on  classification,  Chapters  XIII  and  XIV,  are  to  be  taken  up. 
Even  in  this  way,  many  common  and  interesting  flowers  will  be 
missed.  Some  larkspurs  are  sure  to  be  found  long  before  they  are 
discussed  in  Chapter  XV.  If  the  children  collect  these,  they  should  be 
taught  the  name  and  encouraged  to  find  out  the  parts  of  the  flowers, 
note  the  insect  guests,  etc.  Often  a  member  of  the  Portulaca  family, 
either  tCa!andrinia  Menziesii,  T.  &  G.,  or  C.  elegans,  Spach,  will  be 
very  abundant  along  waysides  or  in  grain  fields.  The  plant  has  fleshy 
leaves  and  numerous  bright,  rose  colored  or  magenta  flowers.  The 
amount  of  pollen  compensates  for  the  lack  of  honey,  and  the  great 
number  of  little,  black  seeds  should  by  all  means  be  noted,  since  their 
abundance  probably  accounts  for  the  persistence  of  the  plant  in  culti- 
vated soil. 

Have  the  children  at  least  note  the  fact  that  themalva  weed,  Malva 
parviflora.  Linn.,  has  flowers,  and  that  the  "cheeses"  are  the  ovaries. 
If  there  is  time  to  compare  these  flowers  with  those  of  the  wild  holly- 
hock, Sidalcea,  or  with  the  shrubby  Malvas,  the  family  characteristics, 
especially  the  column  of  united  stamens,  numerous  pistils  and  mucil- 
aginous juice,  can  be  noted.  The  flowers  of  some  members  of  the 
rose  family  will  have  to  be  noted  here,  if  at  all;  the  wild  blackberry, 
Rubus  ursinus,  for  instance,  also  some  strawberry-like  flowers,  Poten- 
tillas.  In  collecting  in  well  shaded  places  some  herbaceous  saxifrages 
will  probably  be  encountered,  Tellima  affinis  perhaps,  or  Saxifraga 
reflexa.  Fleshy  leaf  rosettes  belonging  to  the  "live-for-ever"  family, 
Crassulacese,  will  be  encountered,  but  they  usually  bloom  rather  late, 
and  will  be  mentioned  in  Chapter  XV,  along  with  the  Cacti.  The  large 
pea  family,  Leguminosse,  and  the  geranium  family  come  in  the  next 
chapter,  and  a  chapter  on  irregular  sympetalous  flowers  follows. 

Nearly  all  members  of  these  families  now  in  bloom  will  last  for 
some  weeks,  though  probably  not  that  pretty  little  Labiate,  the  skull- 
cap, Scutellaria  tuberosa,  Benth.  But  some  of  the  most  common 
Umbelliferse,  and  some  attractive  Compositse  are  likely  to  be  missed 
entirely.  Let  the  children  at  least  note  the  existence  of  these  flowers 
and  give  them  common  names  when  possible.  The  family  name  can 
be  easily  developed.  There  is  one  Umbellifer,  a  Sanicula,  with  flow- 
ers in  low,  yellow  clusters,  appearing  as  early  as  January;  this  can  be 
called  yellow  mats  or  meadow  sanicle;  there  is  also  an  early,  purple- 
flowered  sanicle.  The  tidy  tips,  Layia  platyglossa,  Gray,  and  L. 
elegans,  with  their  yellow,  white-tipped  rays  are  among  the  prettiest 
and  best  known  of  California  Compositse.  In  Southern  California 
there  are  two  other  early  Compositse  about  the  size  and  general  ap- 
pearance of  the  tidy  tips,  but  lacking  the  white  tips;  their  botanical 

75 


SUPPLEMENT 

names  are  Leptosyne  Douglasii,  DC.,  and  Senecio  Calif ornicus,  DC. 
The  Leptosyne  has  a  long,  leafless  flower  stem  and  a  double  involucre, 
a  few  linear  bracts  forming  the  outer  circle,  the  inner  consisting  of 
broader,  overlapping  bracts.  The  genus  Senecio  is  commonly  known 
as  the  groundsel;  this  species  has  a  leafy  stem  and  the  akenes  have 
always  a  capillary  pappus.  The  most  common  of  all  the  early  daisy- 
like  Compositse,  the  fragrant  one  that  literally  carpets  hundreds  of 
acres,  is  Bczria  gracilis;  it  is  sometimes  called  fly  flower,  sometimes 
sunshine  or  golden  fields.  The  grass  family  will  not  come  regularly 
till  Chapter  XIII,  but  the  children  can  be  led  to  discover  before  this 
the  fact  that  grasses  have  flowers,  and  can  become  acquainted  with  at 
least  the  wild  oats,  wild  barley  or  fox-tail,  and — if  it  is  common  in 
their  vicinity — the  Bermuda  grass.  The  so-called  blue-eyed  grass, 
Sisyrinchium  helium,  Wats., — see  Fig.  6;  also  Fig.  2,  No.  2— is,  of 
course,  not  a  grass  at  all,  but  its  pretty  blue  flowers  should  be  noted 
and  named. 


76 


CHAPTER  X. 


PLANTS  WITH  HECHANICAL  GENIUS. 

The  many  mechanical  devices  of  the  flowers,  fruits  and  leaves  of 
these  two  families,  Leguminosse  and  Geraniaceae,  seem  to  me  to  justify 
the  title  in  the  Reader.  There  are  so  many  species  of  lupines  that 
their  identification  is  difficult.  They  are  usually  grouped  into 
perennials  and  annuals.  The  most  common  perennial  in  the  vicinity 
of  Los  Angeles,  is  Lupimis  albifrons,  Benth.,  an  almost  shrubby  plant 
with  silken  leaves.  It  blooms  the  year  round,  but  more  profusely  in 
spring  time.  The  flowers  of  the  long  raceme  are  usually  pale  blue, 
but  in  the  San  Fernando  valley  I  have  seen  them  pink  ;  their  fra- 
grance renders  the  species  unmistakable.  L.  Chamissonis,  Bsch.,  is 
the  common  shrubby  lupine  of  the  beaches.  The  long  roots  of  these 
and  of  kindred  species  make  them  valuable  in  confining  sand  dunes. 
A  notable  instance  of  this  was  the  transformation  of  once  shifting  sand 
hills  into  the  beautiful  Golden  Gate  Park  of  San  Francisco.  By  sowing, 
first  barley,  which  grows  very  rapidly,  then  the  lupines,  the  soil  was 
prepared  for  shrubs  and  trees  and  other  vegetation.  Another  peren- 
nial lupine  common  in  the  foothills  of  Southern  California,  is  L.for- 
mosus,  var.  Bridgesii,  Greene  ;  it  resembles  L.  albifrons,  but  is  not 
so  shrubby.  The  perennial  that  grows  so  luxuriantly  along  streams  is 
L.  cytisoides,  Agardh.  I  have  seen  this  lupine  grow  in  thickets,  the 
leaves  tropical  in  size,  and  the  long  clusters  of  rose-colored,  fragrant 
flowers  above  one's  head.  The  flowers  of  this  species  belong  to  the 
larger  bees  ;  hive  bees  are  not  heavy  enough  to  pump  out  the  pollen, 
but  they  sometimes  cling  to  the  keel  and  wings,  and  scratch  out  the 
pollen.  The  annual  lupine  of  the  illustration  is  L.  sparsiflorus, 
Benth.;  other  common  annuals  are  L.  affinis,  Agardh.,  an  early  succu- 
lent plant ;  L.  truncatus,  Nutt.,  with  slender,  truncated  leaflets;  L. 
hirsutissimus,  Benth.,  the  very  rough  lupine  of  dry  habitats  ;  and  L. 
micranthus,  Dougl.,  with  very  tiny  flowers.  L.  densiflorus,  Benth., 
is  common  in  many  parts  of  the  state  ;  it  has  succulent  foliage,  hand- 
some white,  pale  yellow  or  pinkish  flowers,  and  pods  with  but  two 
seeds. 

77 


SUPPLEMENT 

Children  should  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  lupine  as  a 
type  of  papilionaceous,  or  butterfly  flowers,  for  the  main  group  of  the 
order  Leguminosae  is  very  well  represented  in  our  fields  and  gardens, 
and  its  flowers,  fruits  and  leaves  have  such  pronounced  characteristics, 
that  the  kinship  of  the  plants  is  easily  apparent.  The  piston  appa- 
ratus of  the  lupine  flowers  is  in  working  order  as  soon  as  the  banner 
is  erected,  and  is  efficient  until  the  upper  edges  of  the  keel  separate. 
The  stigma  is  not  the  brushy  part  of  the  style,  but  is  merely  the  tiny 
tip  that  is  surrounded  by  bristles.  Perhaps  the  bristles  serve  to  keep 
off  the  flower's  own  pollen  until  after  the  first  insect  visit,  but  ulti- 
mately there  is  sure  to  be  close  pollination.  Whether  all  species  are 
fertile  to  their  own  pollen  I  do  not  know.  Some  of  the  most  showy 
lupines  rarely  mature  fruit  on  the  upper  part  of  the  raceme,  but  L, 
micranthus,  which  I  have  never  seen  visited,  matures  abundance  of 
fruit.  Naturally,  lupines  with  the  most  showy  and  fragrant  flower 
clusters,  receive  the  most  insect  attention  ;  the  most  successful  one  I 
have  seen  is  L.  confertus,  Kellog,  in  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains, 
and  the  bee  that  paid  thirty-five  calls  per  minute  was  the  Nevada 
bumble-bee. 

The  alfalfa,  Medicago  saliva,  Linn.,  wherever  it  is  grown,  is  too 
much  appreciated  to  need  extended  exposition  ;  its  roots  not  unfre- 
quently  attain  a  depth  of  eight  or  ten  feet,  and  they  sometimes  go 
much  deeper.  It  is  hoped  that  the  story  of  its  pollination  is  made 
clear  in  the  Reader  ;  with  the  flowers  in  hand  it  is  easily  seen  ;  self 
pollination  must  always  occur,  and  the  flowers  are  said  to  be  fertile  to 
their  own  pollen.  Butterflies  in  great  numbers  are  often  seen  flutter- 
ing over  alfalfa  fields,  but  I  have  not  had  opportunity  to  determine 
whether  or  not  they  usually  explode  the  flowers  ;  bees  certainly  steal 
the  honey  quite  as  often  as  they  get  it  in  the  direct  way.  The  coiled 
fruits  lack  the  great  advantage  of  hooked  appendages,  but  they  are 
very  readily  blown  about  in  the  dust.  The  flowers  of  bur-clover, 
Medicago  denticulata,  Willd..  in  spite  of  their  minuteness  are  eagerly 
sought  by  bees. 

California  has  a  long  list  of  native  clovers,  many  more  species  than 
the  Atlantic  States,  but  they  do  not  grow  abundantly,  and  the  fragrant 
clover  fields  that  are  such  a  feature  of  our  North-Eastern  States  are 
unknown  in  California,  at  least  in  the  southern  half  of  the  state. 
Our  most  striking  native  clover,  Trifolium  fucatum ,  Lindl.,  is  a  suc- 
culent plant  with  large  heads  of  pink  or  pale  rose-colored  flowers,  the 
individual  flowers  being  perhaps  an  inch  long.  This  handsome  clover 
is  found  in  the  foothills  of  both  mountain  ranges,  and  is  sometimes 
abundant  enough  to  be  valuable  as  a  pasture  plant.  In  Southern 

78 


CHAPTER    X 

California,  Trifolium  tridentatum,  Lindl.,  and  T.  involucratum, 
Willd.,  are  rather  common  in  loamy  soil ;  the  former,  found  in  dryer 
soil,  has  narrow,  acute  leaflets  and  small  heads  of  purple  and  white 
flowers  ;  the  latter,  found  where  there  is  more  moisture,  has  more 
luxuriant  foliage,  and  flower  clusters  that  resemble  the  cultivated  T. 
pratense,  L.,  of  the  North  Atlantic  States.  These  species,  however, 
vary  extremely  in  different  localities,  and  are  sometimes  difficult  to 
distinguish  from  each  other  and  from  kindred  species.  They  have 
abundant  honey,  exclude  short-tongued  guests,  and  seem  able  to  pol- 
linate themselves,  but  whether  they  are  fertile  to  their  own  pollen  I 
do  not  know.  Some  of  the  most  valuable  cultivated  clovers  will  not 
produce  seed  without  cross  fertilization,  and  as  our  Kastern  farmers 
clear  away  the  forests  that  harbor  the  bumble-bees,  they  have  to 
import  clover  seed.  Australian  farmers  have  imported  the  bees  with 
the  clover.  Our  so-called  wild  peas  and  vetches  come  under  two 
genera,  Lathyrus  and  Vicia.  The  Lattiyrus  of  Southern  California  is 
a  vigorous  climber  that  blooms  often  as  early  as  January,  and  con- 
tinues in  bloom  all  spring.  The  flowers  are  so  variable  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  decide  whether  there  are  several  species  or  several  varieties  of 
one  species  (vestitus)  ;  most  commonly  they  are  white  or  cream  color 
with  veins  of  violet  or  rose,  but  they  are  often  entirely  rose-colored, 
violet  or  nearly  purple,  and  one  sort  has  exceedingly  handsome  crim- 
son flowers.  The  flowers  of  Vicia  Americana,  var.  truncata.  Brewer, 
are  often  confused  with  the  others  ;  they  are  more  slender,  and  per- 
haps more  bluish  in  color,  but  a  sure  way  to  distinguish  them  is  by 
the  style  ;  in  both  genera  there  is  a  brush  of  hairs  just  below  the 
stigma  or  tip  of  the  style  ;  in  the  Vicias  this  brush  extends  around  the 
style,  in  the  Lathyrus  it  is  on  the  inner  surface  only.  In  both  genera 
this  tiny  brush  serves  an  important  end.  The  anthers  shed  their  pol- 
len early  into  the  keel  and  over  the  brush  and  stigma,  which,  how- 
ever, is  not  yet  mature.  The  wings  and  keel  are  firmly  united  by 
means  of  pouch  and  socket,  as  in  the  alfalfa  ;  and,  as  in  alfalfa,  the 
honey  is  accessible  through  two  openings  at  the  base  of  the  upper,  or 
free  stamen.  At  the  base  of  the  flower  the  banner  fits  closely  over  the 
rest,  and  only  strong  insects  can  force  an  entrance  to  the  honey  ;  hive 
bees  can,  with  considerable  scrambling,  succeed  with  the  Vicia,  but 
not  with  the  Lathyrus  ;  but  the  larger  native  bees,  particularly  bumble- 
bees, are  frequent  guests  with  both  species.  As  the  lower  part  of  the 
flower  is  forced  down,  the  style  brush  sweeps  out  some  pollen  against 
the  insect's  body,  and  the  friction  of  the  guest  against  the  stigma  is 
said  to  render  it  receptive  to  the  foreign  pollen  the  insect  brings  ; 
such  is  the  elasticity  of  the  tissue  involved,  that  tfie  stamens  and  style 

79 


SUPPLEMENT 

almost  invariably  resume  their  secure  position  in  the  keel  after  a 
visit ;  that  is,  each  flower  may  repeatedly  receive  foreign  pollen  on  its 
stigma,  and,  in  return,  furnish  its  guests  with  fresh  supplies.  Much  of 
this  remarkable  process  can  be  seen  by  imitating  the  pressure  of  the 
bees  on  the  flower.  The  climbing  habits  of  these  plants  are  similar 
to  those  of  our  cultivated  sweet  peas,  to  which  they  are  nearly  related. 

The  "rattle weed"  genus,  Astragalus,  is  a  very  large  one,  and  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  of  the  five  or  six  hundred  species,  are  natives  of 
Western  America.  In  our  fertile  valleys  there  are  several  species, 
the  most  common  being  A.  leucopsis,  Gray;  but  the  numerous  desert 
and  mountain  species,  with  their  various  adaptations  to  hard  condi- 
tions, are  the  most  interesting.  The  inflation  of  the  pods  aids  in  seed 
distribution.  Doubtless  some  species  are  poisonous  to  sheep  and 
cattle,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  so-called  "locoing"  ob- 
served in  this  section,  is  due  to  anything  else  than  the  presence  of 
bezoars  in  the  stomachs  of  the  animals. 

The  genus  Lotus — the  Hosackia  of  the  older  floras — is  particularly 
well  represented  in  California.  The  species  L.  glaber,  Fig.  n,  is 
widely  distributed.  In  the  mountains  it  is  called  deer  weed,  because 
the  deer  feed  on  it.  In  dry  regions  I  have  seen  it  with  the  leaves 
reduced  almost  to  the  vanishing  point,  and  generally,  because  of  its 
numerous  green  stems  which  act  as  foliage,  it  deserves  its  name, 
California  broom.  It  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  chapparal  plants, 
blooming  to  some  extent  the  year  round,  and  very  profusely  in  spring 
and  early  summer.  It  is  an  important  bee  plant,  and  so  are  many  of 
the  annual  species  common  in  the  state.  The  pretty  little  L.  strigo- 
sus,  Greene,  with  its  fine,  rather  rigid  leaves,  and  L.  Wrangelianus  ^ 
F.  &M.,  with  succulent  leaves,  have  few  rivals  in  the  attentions  of 
hive  bees;  they  have  devices  for  pollination  similar  to  those  of  the 
Lathyrus.  There  are  other,  more  handsome  species  that  are  widely 
distributed,  and  are  worthy  of  individual  attention.  Several  species 
of  Lotus  have  the  same  device  for  seed  distribution  as  the  Lupines, 
that  is,  the  valves  coil  back,  so  expelling  the  seeds  forcibly.  Other 
Leguminosse  will  be  referred  to  in  Chapters  XIV  and  XVI. 

Few  of  our  native  Geraniaceae  are  conspicuous,  and  the  kinship  of 
the  introduced  members  of  the  family,  the  filaree,  Pelargonium,  the 
so-called  nasturtium,  and  the  Oxalis  is  not -easily  made  apparent  to 
children,  but  all  these  genera  have  mechanical  contrivances,  some  of 
them  very  striking.  Perhaps  the  story  of  the  filaree  is  told  in  sufficient 
detail  in  the  Reader;  the  young  plants  are  referred  to  in  Chapter  V,  and 
the  weed-like  qualities  of  the  plant  are  discussed  in  Chapter  XVI.  Its 
flowers  have  a  primitive  and  wasteful  methpd  of  pollination;  they  are 

80 


CHAPTER   X 

frequented  by  all  sorts  of  insects,  many  of  them  quite  useless  to  the 
plant;  but  the  bee  appreciates  their  hospitality,  and  I  have  seen  bees 
lick  up  the  honey  still  remaining  in  flowers  whose  petals  had  fallen. 
The  fact  that  the  fruits  bore  themselves  into  a  soft  substratum  is  made 
more  real  when  children  find  them  imbedded  in  fleshy  fruits  or  flow- 
ers, in  strawberries  or  callas,  for  instance.  We  have  a  native  Ero- 
dium  and  several  species  of  geranium  with  fruits  very  similar  to  the 
"clocks;"  the  flowers  of  these  species,  except  some  in  the  mountains, 
are  small  and  not  easily  observed.  The  flowers  of  the  native  Oxalis, 
too,  on  account  of  their  "sleepy"  habits  and  scarcity  of  honey,  are 
not  satisfactory  for  passing  observation.  There  is  a  variety  of  Oxalis 
corniculata,  a  common  garden  weed,  that  has  explosive  fruits,  one  of 
the  inner  layers  of  the  ovary  wall  consisting  of  tissue  in  a  state  of 
tension  that  is  quite  apparent  to  the  touch.  The  garden  balsam,  Im- 
patiens,  which  has  such  strikingly  explosive  fruits,  is  not  so  commonly 
cultivated  in  California  as  in  the  Eastern  States. 

The  so-called  geraniums  of  cultivation  are  mostly  Pelargoniums 
from  South  Africa.  They  are  particularly  adapted  to  our  climate  for 
many  reasons  that  can  be  easily  thought  out;  one  device,  the  absorp- 
tion of  moisture  by  their  hairs,  was  noted  in  Supplement  to  Chapter  III. 
Their  methods  for  pollination  are  striking  and  easily  discerned;  the 
long  duration  of  the  clusters  should  be  noted.  Only  newly  opened 
flowers  supply  pollen;  the  anthers  drop  off  usually  before  the  five 
stigmas  begin  to  unfold.  Honey  is  kept  in  a  "concealed  spur,"  that 
is,  in  a  tube  united  with  the  flower  stem,  the  entrance  to  which  is  be- 
tween the  two  upper  petals;  the  three  lower  petals  form  a  platform, 
the  flowers  being  slightly  irregular,  and  the  guest  alighting  on  these 
petals,  or  rising  from  below  as  humming  birds  do,  must  reach  over 
anthers  or  stigmas  to  get  the  honey;  hence  exactly  the  same  place  on 
the  guest's  body  that,  in  newly  opened  flowers,  strikes  the  anthers 
will,  in  older  flowers,  be  rubbed  against  the  stigmas.  The  tube  varies 
in  depth  in  different  species,  but  in  our  common  red,  white  and  pink 
"geraniums"  it  is  usually  quite  too  deep  for  bees.  Butterfly  collectors 
tell  us  that  they  capture  many  of  their  finest  night  moths  among  the 
geraniums,  and  one  has  but  to  walk  along  the  residence  streets  of  a 
city  to  see  the  humming  birds  at  work  on  the  scarlet  varieties.  Other 
common  cultivated  species,  the  ivy-geranium,  or  the  "  Lady  Wash- 
ington" for  example,  may  have  shorter  tubes  with  honey  accessible 
to  bees,  and  some  of  them  have  very  striking  honey  guides.  The 
Pelargoniums  produce  abundant  seed  in  our  climate,  the  fruits  hav- 
ing precisely  the  same  devices  as  the  filaree. 

The  "nasturtium"   of  cultivation,  which  is  really  a  Tropaeolium 

6  81 


SUPPLEMEN7 

(the  true  Nasturtium  is  the  water  cress),  belongs  to  the  Geranium 
family,  but  has  not  so  many  mechanical  devices.  It  is,  however,  usu- 
ally available  for  out-of-door  observation  in  California,  and  it  is  very 
attractive  and  interesting,  particularly  in  its  method  of  climbing,  and 
its  pollination.  The  honey  in  this  case,  too,  is  in  a  spur,  which  is  not 
concealed  by  union  with  the  petiole.  The  flowers,  being  solitary,  need 
to  be  larger  and  to  have  their  sepals,  as  well  as  their  petals,  brightly 
colored.  The  honey  guides  are  prominent,  the  stamens  and  styles 
behave  precisely  like  those  of  the  larkspur,  see  Chapter  XV.  Humming 
birds  frequent  the  flowers  and  are  the  most  efficient  visitors.  Bees 
and  flies  sometimes  come  for  pollen;  perhaps  the  larger  bees  get 
honey  also. 

The  leaf  movements  so  common  in  Leguminosae  and  so  striking  in 
Oxalis,  were  noted  in  Chapter  V,  but  should  be  taken  up  again.  It 
should  be  observed  especially,  that  these  leaves  assume  their  various 
"sleeping"  positions,  all  of  them  practically  vertical,  during  dry 
winds  or  a  prolonged  drought;  even  the  filaree  erects  and  folds  its 
leaves  to  some  extent.  Obviously,  the  same  device  that  restricts  radi- 
ation of  heat,  also  restricts  transpiration  of  moisture. 


82 


CHAPTER  XI. 


PLANTS  OF  HIGH  RANK. 

The  application  of  the  term  rank  to  plants  is  not  perhaps  in  strict 
accord  with  the  theories  of  modern  biologists  concerning  species. 
Certainly  it  is  not  easy  to  define  what  constitutes  the  highest  develop- 
ment in  plants  ;  but  in  order  to  emphasize,  in  this  and  in  following 
chapters  the  differentiation  of  parts  and  the  division  of  labor  existing 
in  certain  groups  of  plants,  the  old  term  "  higher  plants  "  is  retained. 
The  fact  that  there  are  so  many  different  systems  of  classification, 
none  claiming  perfection,  and  that  there  is  no  one  plant  or  plant 
family  that  has  universal  recognition  as  the  highest,  is  noted  in  the 
next  chapter.  The  bilabiate  families,  Scrophulariaceae  and  Labiatae 
are  particularly  well  represented  in  California  in  the  late  spring  and 
summer,  and  it  is  very  easy  to  recognize  their  members  ;  they  have 
always  irregular  corollas,  two  or  four  stamens,  and  one  style  ;  the 
ovary  of  the  Scrophulariaceae  is  always  two-celled,  the  ovary  of  the 
Labiatse,  like  that  of  Borraginaceae,  separates  into  four  nutlets.  Two 
families  might  possibly  be  confused  with  them  ;  the  family  Ver- 
benaceae,  which  is  commonly  represented  by  a  rough,  weedy  plant 
with  small,  crowded,  violet  flowers,  Verbena  prostrata>  R.  Br., 
and  Orobanchaceae,  the  cancer  coot  family,  which  consists  of  root 
parasites,  and  hence  is  without  chlorophyll,  the  entire  plants  being  a 
dull,  brownish  yellow  or  purple. 

Mimulus  glutinosus,  Wendl.,  illustrates  well  the  capacity  of  flowers 
for  color  variation.  The  most  common  color  is  buff  or  salmon,  but, 
in  the  mountains  I  have  seen  masses  of  flowers  that  were  hardly  more 
than  cream  colored,  while  at  Catalina  Island  I  have  found  the  flowers 
red  only.  Frequently  in  the  foot-hills  one  finds,  growing  in  close 
proximity,  plants  of  this  Mimulus  with  buff  flowers,  others  with  red 
ones,  and  others  in  intermediate  shades.  Bees  are  quite  debarred 
from  the  honey  of  these  flowers  ;  they  cannot  even  bite  through  the 
flower,  because  of  the  tough,  viscid  calyx  that  closely  invests  the 
corolla  tube.  There  are  small  insects  that  can  enter  the  tube  bodily  , 

83 


SUPPLEMENT 

but,  as  the  flower  has  an  open  throat,  they  are  not  likely  to  strike  the 
essential  organs.  Small  beetles  that  have  been  feeding  on  pollen  in  older 
flowers  are  sure  to  effect  cross  pollination  as  they  enter  expanding 
buds,  since  the  open  stigma  always  guards  the  entrance  to  buds.  I 
have  but  once  seen  humming  birds  visit  the  yellow  flowers,  and  have 
had  no  opportunity  to  watch  for  night  moths  ;  the  red  flowers  at 
Catalina  are  rather  frequently  visited  by  humming  birds ;  that 
their  red  color  is  due  to  the  selection  of  the  birds  is,  of  course,  only 
theory. 

Mimulus  luteus,  Linn.,  has  the  throat  much  narrower,  but  I  have 
seen  small  insects  enter  without  touching  the  stigmas.  This  plant  is 
common  everywhere  along  running  water,  and  often  grows  in  masses, 
but  I  have  never,  except  in  the  mountains,  seen  it  visited  by  bees;  in 
the  valleys  it  frequently  fails  to  mature  seed.  There  is  another  Mimu- 
lus common  in  Southern  California,  that  has  large,  handsome, yellow 
flowers;  this  is  M.  brevipes,  Benth.,  an  extremely  viscid  annual, 
found  on  sandy  banks  and  hillsides  ;  this,  too,  secretes  very  little 
honey,  and  I  have  never  seen  it  visited.  Our  one  hospitable  member 
of  this  genus  seems  to  be  M.  cardinalis ;  Dougl.,  a  large  and  exceed- 
ingly brilliant  flower,  found  along  our  streams  in  summer  time  ;  this 
flower  supplies  honey  abundantly  and  keeps  its  anthers  and  stigma 
where  only  humming  birds  can  be  of  any  service.  There  are,  in 
warm  soils,  several  low  annual  species  which  have  rather  large,  rich, 
magenta  flowers,  but  I  have  had  little  opportunity  to  watch  them. 
The  smaller,  yellow  species  that  abound  along  mountain  streams  and 
meadows,  seem  to  be  quite  as  parsimonius  as  their  larger  yellow 
cousins,  but  they  have  generally  some  device  for  narrowing  the 
throat. 

The  Collinsia  bicolor,  Benth.,  is  one  of  the  prettiest  of  our  late 
spring  annuals.  In  some  localities  it  is  known  as  "  innocence,  "  and 
I  have  heard  children  call  it  Chinese  temple,  probably  because  of  the 
many-storied  effect  of  its  flower-cluster.  The  corolla  is  a  remarkable 
imitation  of  the  papilionaceous  type,  the  two  united  upper  petals 
corresponding  to  banner,  the  folded  lower  one  to  keel,  and  the  lateral 
to  wings.  There  is  a  rudimentary  fifth  stamen  that  serves  as  a 
honey  gland.  Honey  is  abundant,  and  the  method  of  pollination  is 
easily  seen  ;  hive,  and  other  large  bees,  visit  the  flowers  frequently. 
Several  other  species  of  Collinsia  are  not  rare.  The  owl's  clover,  or 
pink  painter's  brush,  and  the  scarlet  painter's  brush,  belong  to  differ- 
ent but  nearly  related  genera.  The  former,  Orthocarpus  purpurascens ', 
Benth.,  is  very  common,  sometimes  becoming  a  weed  in  grain  fields  ; 
its  common  name,  clover,  is  suggested  by  the  color,  not  by  the  struct- 

84 


CHAPTER   XI 

ure  of  the  flowers.  The  other  plant  in  the  illustration  is  Castilleia 
parviflora,  Bong.,  but  several  other  species  resemble  it  closely  ;  the 
hoary  C.  foliolosa,  H.  &  A.,  of  dry  hillsides,  is  the  only  one  easily 
identified.  In  both  these  genera,  the  bracts  and  calyx  tips  con- 
tribute much  to  the  general  showiness,  the  slender  corollas  having 
their  two  upper  petals  quite  united,  and  the  three  lower  ones  very 
much  reduced.  The  flowers  in  both  cases  have  abundant  honey  ;  I 
have  rarely  seen  day  insects  avail  themselves  of  the  honey  in  the 
Orthocarpus,  but  I  have  marked  numbers  of  unvisited  stigmas  at 
night,  and  have  found  them  quite  visibly  pollinated  in  the  morning. 
The  Castilleias,  I  have  seen  pollinated  only  by  humming  birds, 
though  sometimes  the  flowers  are  short  enough  for  bees.  Both  plants 
produce  abundant  seed. 

The  Pentstemon  that  is  called  the  scarlet  bugler,  is  P.  centranthifo- 
lius,  Benth.;  the  violet  one  of  the  illustration  is  P.  heterophyllus, 
Ivindl.,  its  flowers  being  very  similar  to  P.  spectabilis,  Thurb.  Some 
later  Pentstemons  will  be  referred  to  in  Chapter  XV.  I  have  fre- 
quently seen  the  violet  Pentstemons  visited  by  large  native  bees,  and 
by  regal  Masaria  wasps  that  take  siestas  in  the  flowers.  Several 
other  genera  of  the  family  Scrophulariacese  are  rather  commonly 
encountered.  There  are  several  mulleins,  Verbascums,  imported 
weeds,  that  may  be  found  in  waste  lands.  These  woolly  plants  send 
up  wand-like  clusters  several  feet  high  ;.  the  flowers  are  but  slightly 
irregular  and,  unlike  other  members  of  this  order,  have  five  stamens, 
with  anthers  ;  the  filaments  are  densely  bearded.  The  Veronicas, 
or  speedwells  are  found  only  in  moist  places;  the  small  white  or  blue 
flowers  have  but  two  stamens.  Linaria  Canadensts,  Dum.,  the  blue 
toad  flax,  sometimes  grows  in  masses  in  soil  that  has  been  cultivated  ; 
the  plants  may  be  a  foot  or  more  high,  but  are  exceedingly  slender  ; 
each  blue  flower  has  a  long,  slender  spur,  and,  like  the  snapdragon, 
has  the  throat  closed.  The  botanical  name  for  snapdragon  Is  Antir- 
rhinum, but  none  of  our  native  species  have  sufficiently  large  flowers 
to  be  popularly  recognized  as  snapdragons.  A.  Coulteriamim,  Benth., 
common  in  sandy  soil  in  the  south,  has  wand-like  stems  with  branches 
that  serve  as  tendrils  ;  its  white  flowers  form  a  spike,  and,  while  not 
very  showy,  are  well  visited  by  bees  that  are  strong  enough  to  open 
the  corollas.  Climbing  species  of  Antirrhinum  with  blue  flowers  are 
not  rare.  Scrophularia  Calif  or nica,  Cham.,  is  a  rank,  weedy-looking 
plant  with  reddish-brown,  chubby  little  flowers.  This  genus  has  such 
a  patent  story  of  cross  pollination  that  it  is  usually  selected  for  an 
illustration  in  text  books.  The  flowers  are  nearly  globular,  but  have 
a  wide  opening  between  the  upper  and  lower  lips  ;  between  the  two 

85 


SUPPLEMENT   • 

upper  petals  is  the  rudimentary  fifth  stamen  reduced  to  a  scale  ;  the  four 
perfect  stamens  lie  against  the  lower  lip,  but  at  first  are  entirely  within 
the  corolla.  When  the  flower  opens,  the  style  with  its  stigmatic  tip 
looks  over  the  edge  of  the  lower  lip;  here  it  is  sure  to  be  struck  by 
the  bees  or  wasps  that  come  for  honey.  After  pollination,  the  style 
curves  closely  over  the  lip,  and  puts  the  withering  stigma  out  of  the 
way,  then,  two  by  two,  the  anthers  pop  up  and  stand  exactly  where 
the  stigma  stood.  Honey  is  particularly  abundant  in  these  flowers; 
bees  come  in  throngs,  and  I  have  seen  even  humming  birds  visit 
them;  so  these  flowers  are  a  striking  illustration  of  the  fact  that 
abundance  of  refreshment  counts  more,  even  with  the  highest  guests, 
than  imposing  size  or  pleasing  color.  There  are  two  genera  obviously 
nearly  related  to  Castilleia  and  Orthocarpus;  they  are  Cordylanthus 
and  Pedicularis.  The  flowers  of  the  former  are  found  in  summer  or 
in  dry  habitats  and  are  not  striking,  but  the  latter  blooms  early  in 
damp  woods,  and  the  most  common  species  is  so  striking,  with  its  red- 
dish stems  and  leaves  and  its  handsome  crimson  clusters,  that  child- 
ren call  it  Indian  warrior.  It  is  found  but  rarely  in  Southern 
California. 

The  family  Labiatae  has,  besides  the  characteristics  already  men- 
tioned, square  s'tems  and  opposite  leaves  ;  the  flowers  are  solitary  or 
in  whorls  in  the  axils  of  leaves  ;  when  they  are  densely  clustered,  the 
effect  is  of  a  succession  of  heads  through  which  the  stem  passes. 
Nearly  all  Labiatae  are  aromatic,  and  several  genera  are  called  mints, 
Mentha,  Monardella  and  Micromeria  for  instance ;  Micromeria 
Douglasii,  Benth.,  is  the  yerba  buena  so  prized  as  a  medicine  by  the 
Spanish  Californians;  Monardella  lanceolata*  Gray,  or  "  pennyroyal," 
is  a  handsome-flowered  mint,  rather  common  in  the  mountains  ;  its 
flowers  are  well  patronized  by  bees  and  butterflies.  Several  species  of 
Stachys,  or  hedge  nettle,  are  rather  common  plants  of  weedy  habit  ; 
Stachys  bullata,  Benth.,  is  found  in  moist  places  ;  the  flowers  have  an 
obvious  story  of  pollination.  The  Scutellariae  are  called  skullcaps 
because  of  their  peculiar  helmet-shaped  calyxes.  5.  tuberosa  is  only 
a  few  inches  high,  but  it  has  vigorous,  tuberous  roots,  and  large  purple 
flowers  that  come  early,  as  noted  in  the  Supplement  to  Chapter  IX. 
Another  Scutellaria,  with  similar  flowers,  is  common  in  the  mountains 
in  summer,  and  is  pollinated  by  large  bees.  The  hoarhound  is  classed 
with  weeds  in  Chapter  XVI,  and  so  is  Trichostema  lanceolatum,  Benth., 
the  disagreeably  scented  blue-curls.  Trichostema  lanatum,  Benth., 
the  woolly  blue-curls,  is  a  pleasantly  scented  shrub,  with  unique  hand- 
some flowers  ;  it  is  rather  common  on  gravelly  hillsides  in  Southern 
California. 

86 


CHAPTER   XI 

The  genus  Salvia  is  properly  the  sage  genus,  but  our  native  plants 
called  sages,  belong  to  the  allied  genus  Audibertia.  Both  genera  have 
very  peculiar  stamens.  The  tissue  joining  the  two  cells  of  an  anther 
is  called  the  connective  ;  in  these  flowers  the  connective  is  usually 
developed  so  that  it  separates,  rather  than  connects,  the  two  cells.  In 
the  Salvias  both  anther  cells  contain  pollen,  and  the  connective  rests 
on  the  filament  like  a  see-saw  board  on  its  support.  In  the  genus 
Audibertia  but  one  anther  cell  remains,  and  the  connective  is  simply 
joined  at  or  near  the  other  end  to  the  filament,  so  that  the  stamen 
appears  to  be  a  spliced  filament  bearing  a  single  anther  cell  at  the 
top.  In  the  little  chia,  Salvia  Columbaria?,  Benth.,  the  value  of  this 
curious  mechanism  appears  ;  as  the  guest,  usually  a  large  bee,  thrusts 
his  head  into  the  flower  for  honey,  he  strikes  it  against  the  lower 
anther  cell,  the  connective  swings  on  the  filament  and  the  other  anther 
cell  strikes  the  bee's  back,  so  that  he  is  well  dusted  with  pollen  to 
carry  to  older  flowers,  whose  stigmas  are  mature.  The  big  chia,  ,5". 
carduacea,  Benth.,  has  its  filaments  so  short  as  almost  to  escape 
notice  ;  the  two  parts  of  the  connective  are  rigid,  and  are  easily  mis- 
taken for  filaments  ;  in  fact  the  essential  organs  in  this  flower  do  not 
seem  well  adjusted,  and  pollination  is  very  much  a  matter  of  chance. 
Watching  the  pollination  of  the  black  sage,  Aiidibertia  stachyoides, 
Benth.,  and  the  white  sage,  A.  polystachya,  Benth.,  is  delightful  field 
work.  The  process  is  fully  described  in  the  Reader.  Another  sage 
common  on  hillsides  in  some  parts  of  Southern  California  is  A.  nivea, 
Benth.  In  this  species  the  stamens  and  style  are  longer  than  in  the 
black  sage,  and  stand  about  midway  between  upper  and  lower  lip,  so 
that  the  bees  generally  use  them  as  a  perch  while  they  are  gathering 
honey  ;  this  brings  pollen-covered  anthers  in  younger  flowers,  and 
mature  stigmas  in  older  ones,  against  the  bee's  body.  A  handsome 
mountain  sage  will  be  noticed  in  Chapter  XV.  The  botanical  name 
for  the  crimson  sage  is  A.  grandiflora,  Benth. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Los  Angeles,  I  frequently  find  very  interesting 
hybrid  forms,  crosses  between  A.  polystachya  and  A.  stachyoides. 
The  whole  subject  of  hybridization  is  full  of  interest.  Of  course,  the 
production  of  hybrids  among  cultivated  plants  is  extremely  common. 
It  has  been  practiced  by  Chinese  and  Japanese  gardeners  from  the 
beginning  of  historic  times.  It  is  estimated  that  about  6,000  kinds  of 
roses  alone  have  been  produced  in  this  way.  Wild  hybrids  are  much 
more  common  than  is  generally  supposed.  About  1,000  new  hybrids 
were  reported  in  Europe  alone  in  forty  years.  Hybrids  exist  among 
mosses  and  ferns  as  well  as  among  flowering  plants.  Kerner  devotes 
many  pages  to  this  topic,  and  states,  as  an  indisputable  conclusion,  that 

87 


SUPPLEMENT 

hybridization  does  give  rise  to  new  species.  A  hybrid  may  be  quite 
as  fertile  as  the  parent  species,  or  even  more  so,  and  among  the  many 
hybrids  that  arise,  some  are  likely  to  be  better  adapted  to  changing 
climatic  conditions,  changes  in  insect  life,  etc.,  than  are  the  parent 
plants.  Kerner  claims  that  the  full  significance  of  sex  in  plants  can 
be  explained  only  in  this  way  ;  that  is,  that  the  union  of  the  ooplasm 
and  spermatoplasm  from  different  species  can  give  rise  to  new  species 
better  adapted  to  new  conditions. 

To  return  to  the  sages  and  other  Labiatae  ;  the  calyxes  persist  and 
enclose  the  four  seed-like  fruits  ;  sometimes  the  calyx  teeth  attach 
themselves  to  passing  objects,  and  so  become  efficient  means  of  seed 
distribution,  as  every  one  who  has  encountered  the  hoarhound  knows. 
But  generally  the  calyxes  are  not  easily  broken  off ;  most  persistent 
calyxes  serve  as  do  capsules,  simply  to  hold  seeds  until  they  are  scat- 
tered by  hard  winds.  Kerner  states  that  in  many  cases  the  teeth  are 
pressed  down  by  passing  objects,  or  against  neighboring  twigs  in  a 
wind,  and  that  in  the  rebound  the  fruits  are  shot  out  with  consider- 
able force. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


SOCIAL   FLOWERS. 

Members  of  the  family  Composite  are  easily  recognized;  the  flow- 
ers are  always  in  a  dense  head  surrounded  by  an  involucre;  with  few 
exceptions,  there  are  five  united  anthers  and  a  two-cleft  style;  the 
ovary  is  always  inferior  and  the  fruit  an  akene.  Identification  of 
species  in  a  family  often  thousand  is,  of  course,  difficult;  some  of  the 
primary  divisions  of  the  order  are  based  upon  characteristics  seen 
clearly  only  under  the  microscope.  So  the  identification  of  Compos- 
itse  is  usually  undertaken  only  by  professional  botanists,  and  the 
laity  do  well  to  recognize  the  principle  of  division  of  labor,  and  ask 
specialists  to  name  these  plants.  But  since  a  botanist  may  not  al- 
ways be  accessible,  and  because  this  group  contains  many  of  our  most 
handsome  and  interesting  plants,  native  and  cultivated,  a  brief  de- 
scription of  some  of  the  most  common  native  Compositae  is  here 
given. 

The  group  Tubuliflorae  includes  all  the  Compositae  having  tubular 
flowers,  whether  or  not  they  have  ray  flowers  also.  The  Aster  tribe 
is  one  of  this  group,  and  includes  many  common  orders,  the  greater 
number  of  them  summer  and  autumn -blooming  plants.  Some  of 
them  are  referred  to  in  the  Supplement  to  Chapter  III.  Not  all  of  this 
tribe  resemble  asters  in  general  appearance .  The  gum  plant  or  resin 
weed,  Grindelia,  belongs  here;  it  is  not  so  common  in  the  south,  but 
farther  north  the  species  G.  cuneifolia,  Nutt.,  abounds  in  salt 
marshes  and  is  collected  in  great  quantities  for  the  manufacture  of  a 
medicine  of  the  same  name,  a  medicine  that,  like  the  cascara,  was 
discovered  by  the  Indians,  and  is  now  in  general  use.  The  heads 
have  yellow  rays,  and  are  rather  large  and  showy;  the  involucres  are 
covered  with  a  milky  resin  that  is  the  valuable  product  of  the  plant. 
Heterotheca  grandifl.oray  Nutt.,  is  a  very  common  tar-weed  of  the 
south;  it  is  a  tall,  stiff,  coarse  plant,  resinous,  ill  scented  and  usually 
dust  laden;  the  flowers  are  of  medium  size,  and  have  numerous  yel- 
low rays;  the  fruits  have  a  rusty  pappus. 


SUPPLEMENT 

Alters  aie  found  all  over  the  state,  but  neither  they  nor  their  near 
relative,  the  golden  rod,  are  so  common  a  feature  of  the  summer  and 
autumn  flora  as  in  the  Atlantic  States.  They  belong  to  three  genera 
difficult  to  distinguish,  Corethrogyne,  Aster  and  Erigeron.  They 
have  both  ray  and  disc  flowers  and  a  capillary  pappus;  the  disc  flow- 
ers are  commonly  yellow,  the  ray  flowers  are  usually  blue,  violet  or 
lavender,  but  they  may  be  white  or  rose  colored.  In  the  southern 
valleys  the  common  summer  and  autumn  species  are  scattered  plants, 
rather  stiff  in  habit,  but  farther  north  on  the  beaches,  and  in  moist 
places  in  the  higher  mountains  throughout  the  state,  there  are  some 
graceful  and  exceedingly  beautiful  Asters.  Erigeron  Philadelphicus, 
Ivinn.,  is  a  common  weed  in  wet  places,  and  has  in  spring  time  rather 
large  and  very  pretty  flower  heads  with  white  fringe-like  rays.  E. 
Canadensis,  L,inn.,  is  another  common  weed  ;  it  flourishes  late  in 
autumn,  and  in  land  that  has  been  cultivated,  it  is  sometimes  six  feet 
high;  its  flowers  are  small  and  greenish  white,  but  because  of  its 
numerous,  slender,  green  leaves  and  branches  and  its  fluffy  fruits,  it 
is  by  no  means  an  unattractive  plant. 

The  California  golden  rod.  Solidago  Calif ornica,  Nutt.,  is  found 
throughout  the  state  and  is  especially  abundant  in  the  mountains;  its 
heads  are  small,  but  they  are  massed  in  fairly  large  clusters,  not, 
however,  at  all  comparable  with  the  great  plume-like  clusters  of  some 
Eastern  species.  S.  octidentalis,  Nutt.,  grows  along  streams  and  has 
small  clusters.  Aplopappus  and  Bigelovia,  as  noted  in  Chapter  III,  are 
genera  .specially  adapted  to  the  arid  interior  regions;  nearly  all  our 
species  are  low  and  shrubby,  with  narrow,  rigid  and  often  resinous 
leaves;  the  heads  of  yellow  flowers  are  usually  slender  with  rays 
wanting  or  not  conspicuous.  Our  one  genus  that  contains  shrubs,  the 
Baccharis,  is  also  one  of  the  Aster  tribe.  The  tallest  species,  B.  vim- 
ineay  DC.,  called  the  flowering  or  mock-willow,  grows  along  streams 
and  is  sometimes  twenty  feet  high;  other  species  grow  along  streams 
or  even  on  coast  hills,  and  usually  have  numerous  red  nutgalls  on  the 
leaves.  They  bloom  in  late  summer  and  autumn;  the  heads  on  some 
plants  are  staminate,  on  others  pistillate;  none  have  ray  flowers;  the 
pappus  is  very  copious  and  silky. 

The  Gnaphaliums,  or  everlasting  flowers,  belong  to  another  tribe. 
Although  some  species  bloom  in  spring  time,  the  plants  are  so  well 
adapted  to  hard  conditions,  either  aridity  or  cold,  that  they  are  in- 
cluded in  Chapter  III.  The  Eidelweiss  of  the  Alps  is  a  Gnaphalium. 
The  individual  flowers  are  so  very  slender  that  it  is  not  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish their  parts;  there  are  no  ray  flowers,  and  only  a  few  central 
flowers  in  each  head  are  perfect,  the  outer  ones  being  pistillate  only. 

90 


CHAPTER    XII 

The  fruits  of  this  genus,  like  all  the  others  we  have  considered  so  far, 
have  a  capillary  pappus.  The  Ambrosia  tribe,  in  spite  of  its  melli- 
fluous name,  contains  some  ugly  weeds;  the  genus  Ambrosia  includes 
the  rag-weed,  so  troublesome  in  Eastern  States,  but  on  our  coast  the 
allied  genus  Franseria  is  more  common,  and  equally  weedy.  These 
weeds  have  some  redeeming  features;  the  foliage  is  always  pleasing, 
the  leaves  being  pinnately  divided,  often  very  delicately.  On  the 
beach,  or  in  sandy  wastes,  the  plants  are  grey,  sometimes  silky,  but 
in  rich  cultivated  soil  they  have,  like  the  fleabane,  green  foliage  when 
everything  else  is  brown  or  gray.  Another  genus  of  this  tribe  is  Xan- 
thium,  the  cocklebur,  the  impersonation  of  total  depravity  among 
plants.  The  flowers  of  these  genera  might  not  be  recognized  as  be- 
longing to  Composite;  the  heads  of  staminate  flowers  are  clustered, 
but  are  inconspicuous;  on  the  same  plant  are  the  pistillate  flowers 
only  one  or  two  in  a  head,  surrounded  by  involucres  that  are  covered 
with  spines,  the  hooked  spines  of  the  cocklebur  being  specially 
vicious. 

Many  of  our  common  Composite  are  included  in  the  sunflower 
tribe  and  two  or  three  allied  tribes  that  the  amateur  finds  difficult  to 
distinguish.  The  common  sunflower,  Helianthus  annuus,  L,inn., 
supposed  to  be  the  ancestor  of  the  cultivated  sunflower,  is  referred  to 
in  Chapter  XVI  as  taking  possession  of  cultivated  land  during  the 
summer  and  autumn;  it  grows  also  along  streams  and  In  warm,  loose 
soil  generally,  and  may  be  found  in  flower  almost  any  month.  En- 
celia  Californica,  Nutt.,  of  the  south,  is  often  mistaken  for  the  sun- 
flower ;  it  is  a  handsome,  strongly  scented  perennial,  growing  in 
masses  and  blooming  very  fully  in  spring  time;  the  heads  are  some- 
what smaller  than  sunflowers,  usually  about  two  and  a  half  inches  in 
diameter;  the  plants  are  bushy,  being  woody  at  the  base  like  a  mar- 
gueiite,  but  they  are  not  so  coarse  and  rough  as  a  sunflower.  Their 
method  of  pollination  does  not,  I  think,  differ  from  that  of  the  sun- 
flower. 

Of  the  Compositae  mentioned  in  the  Supplement  to  Chapter  IX,  the 
tidy-tips,  Layia  platyglossa,  Gray,  is  nearly  related  to  the  sunflower 
and  has  the  same  methods  ;  another,  Layia  glandttlosa,  H.  &  A.,  and 
its  variety  rosea,  with  ray  flowers  white  and  rosy  respectively,  are 
very  widely  distributed  in  sandy  soil,  and  are  successful  in  securing 
insect  patronage  ;  they  can  be  readily  recognized  by  any  one  familiar 
with  tidy-tips.  Leptosyne  Douglasii,  DC.,  belongs  to  the  sunflower 
tribe  and  Bceria  gracilis,  Gray,  to  a  very  nearly  allied  tribe  ;  the 
groundsel,  Senecio  Calif  or  nica,  DC.,  belongs  to  a  group  separated 
from  these  mainly  because  of  its  capillary  pappus.  Another  groundsel 

91 


SUPPLEMENT 

which  has  inconspicuous  flowers,  is  an  introduced  European  weed; 
and  the  handsome,  shrubby,  autumn-blooming  Senecio  Douglasii, 
is  described  in  the  Supplement  to  Chapter  III.  There  are  other 
Baerias  difficult  of  identification,  and  two  very  large  flowered  species 
of  lyeptosyne  are  occasionally  met  on  the  sea  coast  or  desert.  The 
Leptosynes  can  be  recognised  by  the  characteristic  double  involucre 
described  in  Chapter  IX,  Supplement. 

The  genus  Bidens,  including  the  bur-marigold,  B.  chrysanthemoides, 
Michx.,  and  the  Spanish  needle,  B.  pilosa,  Linn.,  is  another  genus 
belonging  to  the  sunflower  tribe,  and  the  large  flowers  of  the  former 
species,  so  abundant  along  streams  in  autumn,  much  resemble  sun- 
flowers. The  akenes  of  both  species  are  tipped  with  from  two  to  four 
barbed  awns,  which  are  most  efficient  in  distributing  the  seed.  The 
species  B.  pilosa  is  an  introduced  weed  common  in  waste  places  in 
the  south;  neither  foliage  nor  flower  is  attractive,  and  the  fruits  are  a 
great  affliction  to  pedestrians. 

The  two  tar- weed,  genera,  Madia  and  Hemizonia,  also  belong  to 
this  tribe.  They  are  taken  up  in  the  Reader  in  Chapter  XVI,  but  as 
some  of  them  bloom  in  May,  it  may  be  best  to  consider  the  genera 
here.  The  name  Hemizonia  was  suggested  by  the  shape  of  the  invo- 
lucre, which,  in  both  genera,  is  hemispherical.  The  bracts  of  the 
involucre,  in  both  genera,  infold  the  akenes  of  the  ray  flowers. 
Madia  sativa,  Molina,  blooming  in  July  and  August,  is  probably  the 
most  obnoxious  of  all  this  obnoxious  tribe ;  it  is  unattractive  and 
ill  scented,  and  its  resinous  secretion  mingled  with  dust  ruins  clothing; 
but  this  same  secretion,  besides  protecting  the  plant  in  several  ways, 
fastens  the  bracts  containing  ripened  fruits  to  passing  objects. 
Another  Madia,  M.  elegans,  Don.,  blooming  in  May  and  June,  is  fra- 
grant, and  has  handsome  flower  heads  that  close  during  the  heat  of 
the  day  ;  the  yellow  ray  flowers  are  often  marked  with  brown  or  dark 
red  at  the  base,  suggesting  the  name  wild  coreopsis.  These  and  other 
Madias  are  much  more  common  northward  than  in  the  south  ;  so  are 
the  Hemizonias  generally,  excepting  H.fasciculata  var.  ramosissima, 
Gray,  which  begins  blooming  in  June  and  becomes  a  common  feature 
of  summer  vegetation.  This  plant  is  low  but  much  branched  ;  it  has 
sparse  foliage,  and  very  numerous  small  flower  heads,  though  with 
five  broad,  yellow  ray  flowers  each.  The  species//,  pungens,  T.  &G., 
has  leaves  and  bracts  tipped  with  spines.  H.  luzulce folia,  DC.,  is  the 
most  common  species  in  the  more  northern  harvest  fields  ;  it  has  a 
spicy  odor  and  rather  attractive  white  or  pale  yellow  flower  heads  of 
medium  size.  John  Muir  devotes  a  page  of  his  "  Mountains  of  Cali- 
fornia ' '  to  the  charms  of  another  Hemizonia,  which  blooms  in  Octo- 

92 


CHAPTER   XII 

her ;  he  speaks  of  the  numerous  flower  heads — sometimes  three 
thousand  on  a  single  plant — and  of  their  richness  in  texture  and  color. 
There  is  a  Hemizonia,  H.  tenella,  Gray.,  often  collected  in  June  on 
southern  hillsides,  that  is  at  first  glance  easily  mistaken  for  a  white 
Gilia  ;  its  three  to  five  prominent  ray  flowers  have  the  corollas  very 
deeply  three-cleft 

Nearly  all  the  Compositse  we  have  been  considering  have  both  ray 
and  disc  flowers  ;  but  the  genus  Chsenactis  belonging  to  the  same 
tribe  as  Bseria,  and  hence  nearly  related  to  the  sunflower  tribe,  is 
quite  destitute  of  ligulate  flowers,  although  its  heads  are  handsome 
and  of  good  size  ;  the  outer  tubular  flowers  are  large  and  usually 
simulate  ray  flowers.  The  flowers  are  generally  woolly,  and  the 
plants  are  adapted  to  higher  altitudes  or  dry  regions,  very  handsome 
species  being  found  in  the  Mohave  Desert ;  the  heads  may  be  yellow, 
white  or  rose  colored  ;  the  most  common  species  about  L/os  Angeles, 
C.glabriu  scuta,  DC.,  has  yellow  flowers  blooming  in  company  with 
the  tidy- tips.  Eriophyllum  confertiflorum ,  Dougl.,  the  golden 
yarrow,  is  also  one  of  this  tribe  ;  the  plants  are  not  more  than  two 
feet  high,  but  are  woody  and  woolly,  and  are  generally  adapted  to 
dry  hillsides  and  summer  suns  ;  the  small  heads  of  deep  yellow 
flowers  are  massed  in  large  flat-topped  clusters  similar  to  the  true 
yarrow.  The  true  yarrow,  Achillea  millefolium,  I/inn.,  is  put  in 
another  tribe,  because  of  its  involucres  of  papery  or  scale-like 
bracts  ;  the  clusters  of  small,  white  heads  are  large  and  showy  ;  the 
leaves  are  very  finely  divided,  and  form  rosettes  close  to  the  ground 
that  are  so  dense  and  green,  in  spite  of  dry  soil,  that  the  plant  is  some- 
times used  in  lawns.  The  yarrow  is  highly  scented,  so  are  most  other 
genera  in  this  tribe,  such  as  the  chrysanthemum,  tansy,  Anthemis, 
or  Chamomile  {Anthemis  cotula  being  the  Mayweed),  Artemisia,  the 
sage  brush  or  wormwood,  and  Cotula  coronopifolia,  Linn.,  the  common 
weed  of  wet  grounds,  whose  heads  the  children  call  brass  buttons. 
Some  members  of  this  tribe  have  heads  with  ray  flowers,  but  several 
have  disc  flowers  only,  the  Cotula  and  Artemisia  for  instance  ;  the 
flowers  of  the  latter  genus  are  very  inconspicuous  and  are  wind 
pollinated. 

The  thistle  tribe  has  tubular  flowers  only.  The  corollas  are  deeply 
slashed  and  the  style  branches  are  united  nearly  or  quite  to  the  tip. 
The  true  thistle,  Carduus,  or  Cnicus,  has  an  exceedingly  downy  pappus* 
each  bristle  being  a  long,  slender  plume.  The  large  handsome  thistle 
most  common  in  the  south,  is  Cnicus  occidentalis,  Gray  ;  its  spine- 
tipped  leaves  and  bracts  are  clothed  with  long  white  wool  and  cob- 
webby hairs  ;  the  flower  heads  are  about  two  inches  long  and  nearly 

93 


SUPPLEMEN1 

as  broad.  The  yellow  star  thistle,  Centaurea  melitensis,  Linn.,  will 
be  considered  in  Chapter  XVI. 

The  sub-order,  Liguliflorae,  has  heads  composed  of  ligulate  flowers 
only  ;  it  is  also  characterized  by  its  bitter,  milky  juice.  The  corollas 
are  five-toothed  ;  our  common  species  have  generally  a  downy  pap- 
pus, and  flower  heads  that  remain  open  only  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions.  Chicory,  cultivated  as  a  substitute  for  coffee,  has  escaped 
from  cultivation  in  some  parts  of  the  state ;  its  pretty  blue  flower 
heads  are  sometimes  called  bachelor's  buttons.  Lettuce  and  salsify 
belong  here,  and  the  introduced  dandelion  of  our  lawns  and  streets  ; 
also  the  sow-thistle,  Sonchus,  considered  in  Chapter  XVI.  The  most 
handsome  native  flowers  of  this  group  belong  to  the  genus  Malaco- 
thrix.  M.  saxatilis,  var.  tenuifolia,  is  pictured  and  described  in 
Chapter  III.  There  are  also  some  striking  annual  species:—^/.  Coulteri, 
Gray,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  flowers  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley, 
and  is  occasionally  found  as  far  south  as  San  Fernando;  the  heads 
are  white  or  creamy,  becoming  rosy  with  age.  M.  Calif ornica,  DC., 
has  heads  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches  in  diameter,  each  consist- 
ing of  between  one  and  two  hundred  pale  yellow  ray  flowers.  There 
are  acres  and  acres  of  untilled  sandy  soil  in  the  south  where  these 
regal  heads  are  lifted  on  their  long  peduncles  above  the  sunlit  carpet 
of  lesser  flowers. 

The  parsley  family,  Umbelliferae,  contains  about  thirteen  hundred 
species.  Like  Composite,  this  order  is  easily  recognized,  but  the 
species  are  very  difficult  to  identify  ;  they  do  not  form  a  conspicuous 
part  of  our  native  flora,  but  some  very  common  plants  are  among 
them.  A  little  enterprise  in  observing  and  collecting  would  enable 
older  classes  to  make  out  a  long  list  of  family  traits.  The  clusters  are 
umbellate,  often  being  compound  umbels  ;  the  individual  flowers  have 
inferior  ovaries  ;  the  calyx  limb  has  usually  five  minute  teeth  ;  there 
are  five  petals,  five  stamens,  two  styles  and  an  ovary  that  separates 
into  two  akenes ;  the  stem  is  usually  hollow  and  grooved,  and  the 
leaves  compound,  often  finely  dissected;  carrots,  parsley,  and  fennel  are 
examples  ;  the  petioles  are  sometimes  prominent,  as  in  the  celery  ; 
the  roots  often  store  much  food,  and  in  some  species  are  edible  ;  fre- 
quently the  plants  are  very  aromatic,  especially  the  seeds,  as  in  the 
fennel,  dill,  coriander  and  caraway. 

Our  most  notable  example  of  a  noxious  species  is  the  poison  hem- 
lock, Conium  maculatum,  Linn  ,  which  blooms  in  rich,  shaded  soil 
in  June.  Our  notable  exceptions  to  the  family  trait  of  compound 
leaves,  grow  in  wet  or  shaded  places.  The  genus  Hydrocotyle,  or 
marsh  pennywort,  has  minute  flowers,  but  very  pretty,  rounded,  scal- 

94 


CHAPTER   Xll 

loped  leaves,  and  is  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  borders  of  streams 
and  pools  in  Southern  California.  Boiulesia  lobata,  R.  &  P.,  on 
shaded  hillsides,  has  exquisite  foliage.  Our  common,  early-blooming, 
field  Umbelliferse  belong  mainly  to  the  genera  Sanicula  and  Peuceda- 
num.  The  earliest  in  Southern  California  is  P.  utriculatum,  Nutt., 
with  compound  umbels  of  yellow  flowers  much  frequented  by  little 
insects  ;  it  has  finely  dissected  leaves,  and  later  on  conspicuous  fruits 
with  red  borders.  Yellow  mats  is  the  name  given  to  some  species  of 
Sanicle  ;  there  is  also  a  Sanicle  with  purple  flowers.  The  umbellets 
of  the  Sanicle  are  so  compact  that  they  are  more  properly  called 
heads  ;  only  a  few  flowers,  from  five  to  eight,  in  each  head,  are  per- 
fect ;  the  styles  of  these  perfect  flowers  protrude  before  the  corollas 
expand,  and  the  stigmas  mature  much  before  the  stamens  stretch  out 
and  expose  their  anthers  a  few  at  a  time.  The  little  fruits  of  the 
Sanicle  mature  in  early  summer,  and  are  armed  with  hooked  spines  ; 
the  children  sometimes  call  them  beggars'  ticks.  The  other  Umbel- 
liferae  noted  in  the  Reader,  are  probably  familiar  by  their  common 
names  at  least.  The  botanical  names  are  : — For  the  wild  celery,  Apium 
graveolens,  Linn.;  the  caraway,  Carum  carui,  Linn,;  the  carrot, 
Daucus carota,  Linn.;  the  parsnip,  Pastinaca  saliva.  Linn.;  coriander, 
Coriandrum  sativum.  Linn.;  fennel,  Fceniculum  vulgare,Ger. 

The  plants  of  this  chapter  have  many  individual  traits  worthy  of 
attention.  As  noted  in  Chapter  III,  many  Composite  are  very  success- 
ful in  adapting  themselves  to  the  vicissitudes  of  a  dry  climate.  The 
Umbelliferae  generally  seem  to  require  more  moisture;  at  any  rate 
several  species  that  are  persistent  weeds  in  the  Atlantic  States  do  not 
become  troublesome  here.  Devices  for  the  protection  of  flowers  from 
moisture  or  from  over  radiation  of  heat,  are  common  in  these  orders. 
The  flower  clusters  of  some  species  of  Umbelliferse  take  a  pendent 
position  at  night,  so  that  the  involucre  acts  as  a  tent ;  and  many 
Composite  fold  the  bracts  of  the  involucre  or  the  corollas  of  the  ray 
flowers  over  the  rest  of  the  cluster.  The  methods  of  seed  distribution 
are  varied  and  efficient.  We  have  seen  that  a  large  number  of  Com- 
positse  have  the  calyx  limb  modified  to  a  ring  of  bristles  or  hairs,  so 
that  the  fruits  are  rendered  buoyant ;  sometimes  the  bristles  serve  to 
attach  the  fruits  to  passing  objects.  When  this  calyx  limb,  or  pap- 
pus, is  easily  separated  from  the  fruit,  as  in  the  thistle,  the  fruits  that 
are  landed  against  fences  or  walls  simply  detach  themselves  and  fall 
to  the  ground,  so  that  we  sometimes  have  hedge  rows  of  Compositae 
in  such  places.  Frequently  the  calyx  limb  becomes  a  prehensile 
organ,  as  in  the  genus  Bidens  ;  or  again,  the  involucre,  closely  invest- 
ing the  akenes,  is  armed  with  teeth  and  hooks,  the  Xanthium  and 

95 


SUPPLEMENT 

Franseria  are  examples.  In  other  species,  the  ripened  akenes  are 
held  within  the  persistent  involucre,  just  as  seeds  are  contained  in 
capsules,  until  the  wind  is  strong  enough  to  scatter  them.  The 
fruits  of  Umbelliferse  have  much  of  their  stored  food  in  the  form 
of  oil,  and  so  are  rather  buoyant :  besides  this,  they  have  frequently 
thin  margins  or  wings.  Other  genera  have  their  fruits  covered  with 
hooked  spines. 

But  it  is  when  we  consider  the  pollination  of  the  flowers,  that  the 
advantages  of  their  close  association  are  apparent.  Solitary  flowers 
may  develop  individuality,  and  succeed  in  attracting  the  most  desir- 
able of  guests,  but  nature's  preference  for  the  more  social  method  is 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  ninety  per  cent  of  all  flowering  plants  have 
their  flowers  in  clusters.  We  are  told  that  the  two  orders  discussed 
in  this  chapter  exceed  all  others  both  in  the  number  and  variety  of 
their  guests.  Insects  with  long  tongues  rarely  frequent  the  Umbel- 
liferae,  but  the  honey  of  the  Composite,  since  it  is  at  the  base  of 
extremely  slender  tubes,  rising  only  occasionally  so  as  to  be  visible  in 
the  throat,  is  reserved  for  butterflies  and  bees.  The  pollen  of  both 
orders  is  abundant,  and  is  gathered  by  many  species  of  insects. 

These  orders  generally  provide  for  both  cross  and  close  pollination. 
The  clusters  of  many  Umbelliferse  are,  like  the  sanicle,  in  their  first 
stages,  practically  pistillate,  and  hence  invite  cross  pollination,  but 
the  very  viscid  stigmas  do  not  wither  until  the  anthers  of  neighbor- 
ing flowers  begin  dehiscence;  in  most  cases,  the  styles  diverge  and 
the  stigmas  apply  themselves  to  their  neighbors'  pollen.  The  fennel, 
in  later  stages,  sends  up  its  staminate  umbellets  above  those  with 
still  receptive  stigmas,  so  that  pollen  falls  on  them.  A  large  number 
of  Umbelliferae  have  many  staminate  flowers  mingled  with  the  per- 
fect ones.  Most  Compositae  show  a  preference  for  pollination  from 
one  head  to  another.  In  some  cases  the  plants  are  actually  dioacious; 
frequently  the  ray  flowers  are  pistillate  and  mature  some  time  before 
the  disc  flowers  of  the  same  head;  sometimes  all  the  flowers  of  a  head 
are  in  the  pistillate  stage  for  a  time,  and  finally  all  are  staminate,  but 
the  condition  of  the  sunflower  is  the  most  common,  that  is,  there  is  a 
shifting  ring  of  flowers  in  the  pistillate  stage  surrounding  those  that 
are  shedding  pollen.  The  flowers  can  usually  get  pollen  from  their 
neighbors  in  the  same  head;  their  guests  bring  it,  or  they  may 
stretch  out  their  style  branches  and  reach  it,  or  they  are  pollinated 
by  the  closing  of  the  heads,  or  perhaps  the  receptacle  is  convex  and 
the  pollen  falls  from  the  younger  central  flowers  upon  the  stigmas  of 
older  ones.  Besides  this  pollination  from  neighbors,  self  pollination 
is  not  rare;  as  the  style  branches  separate  and  coil  back,  the  inner, 

96 


CHAPTER   XII 

receptive  surface  may  be  brought  against  the  outer,  pollen-covered 
surface,  or  against  the  pollen  clinging  to  other  parts,  to  tips  of  an- 
thers, or  to  the  corolla,  or  possibly  to  the  long  pappus.  Of  course 
one  will  not  force  all  these  different  conditions  upon  the  attention  of 
the  children. 

But  children  can  think  out  for  themselves  the  various  purposes 
served  by  the  involucre,  protection  from  moisture,  cold,  grazing  ani- 
mals, unbidden  guests,  and  the  like.  Notice,  too,  that  the  involucre 
makes  it  impossible  for  insects  to  get  honey  by  biting  through  the 
corolla  tubes. 


97 


SUPPLEMENT 


CHAPTER  XIII 


PLANT  FAHILIES,     PART   I.     ENDOGENS  OR 
nONOCOTYLEDONS. 

Botanists  do  not  agree  upon  the  classification  of  lower  plants,  and  if 
there  were  a  settled  system  it  would  hardly  be  taken  up  to  any  extent 
in  grammar  grades.  In  a  general  way,  Algae  are  considered  in  Chap- 
ter I  of  the  Reader,  Fungi  in  Chapter  IV,  and  Archegoniatye,  including 
Bryophytes  and  Pteridophytes,  in  Chapter  VI.  Gymnosperuis  would 
have  a  chapter  by  themselves  if  they  were  generally  accessible  to  school 
children.  Gymnosperms  include,  besides  the  Coniferse,  two  orders, 
mainly  foreign  ; — the  cycads,  resembling  tree  ferns  or  palms  and 
frequently  seen  in  green  houses;  and  the  order  Gnetaceae,  or  joint  firs, 
shrubs  or  trees  with  jointed,  rush-like  stems  ;  we  have  a  few  species 
of  one  shrubby  genus  on  our  deserts.  Some  characteristics  of  Conif- 
erae  are  easily  developed,  such  as  their  size,  general  outline,  resin- 
ous juice,  scale-like  or  needle-like  leaves,  persistent  in  all  our  species, 
(we  have  no  larches)  and  their  cone-like  flower  clusters.  Representa- 
tives of  two  groups  are  illustrated  in  Chapter  VIII,  and  the  flowers 
are  described  in  the  Supplement. 

Of  the  cypress  group,  the  Monterey  Cypress  has  already  been 
described  ;  its  scale-like  leaves  and  oblong  or  roundish  cones  are 
typical ;  the  group  includes,  besides  the  cypress,  the  cedar,  arbor  vitas 
and  juniper,  the  juniper  differing  from  the  others  in  having  drupe- 
like  fruits.  Introduced  specimens  of  these  genera  are  common  in 
cultivation.  Our  native  incense  cedar,  Libocedrus  decurrens,  Torr., 
is  widely  distributed  in  the  mountains  ;  under  favorable  conditions  it 
attains  a  height  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  so  is  reckoned  in 
with  the  California  mountain  giants  that  in  the  Sierras  form  perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  forest  belt  in  the  world.  The  incense  cedar  in 
its  prime  is  a  beautiful,  spicy,  symmetrical  tree,  its  downward  curving 
branches  being  described  as  great,  "  ferny  plumes."  Our  native  juni- 
pers, with  thick,  sturdy  trunk  and  limbs,  adapt  themselves  to  high, 
rocky  and  arid  regions. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

The  great  Coniferae  of  our  forests  are  so  famous,  our  mountains  are 
so  accessible,  and  it  is  so  desirable  to  awaken  or  foster  alove  for  them, 
that  it  seems  to  me  quite  legitimate  to  teach  children  some  of  their 
most  notable  trees  from  books  and  pictures,  and  from  any  fragmen- 
tary specimens,  such  as  cones  and  the  like,  that  may  be  available.  It 
would  be  a  dull  teacher  indeed  who  would  fail  to  arouse  enthusiasm 
with  such  a  book  in  hand  as  John  Muir's  "  Mountains  of  California," 
with  its  chapter  on  forests.  The  "big  tree,"  Sequoia  gigantea, 
Decaisne,  is,  perhaps,  of  the  greatest  interest.  Handsome  young  trees 
of  this  species  are  often  seen  in  cultivation,  but  the  native  forests 
exist  only  in  the  Sierras  at  altitudes  of  from  five  to  eight  thousand 
feet.  The  leaves  are  scale-shaped,  but  have  long,  pointed  tips.  The 
cones  are  absurdly  small,  only  about  two  inches  long,  and  have  a 
"quilted  appearance,"  as  Miss  Eastwood  observes.  The  bark  of  the 
older  trees  is  fibrous  and  very  thick  ;  fragments  of  it  are  sold  at  curio 
stores.  The  tallest  tree  reported  is  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet ; 
Muir  mentions  one  with  a  diameter  of  thirty- five  feet  and  eight  inches 
inside  the  bark  four  feet  from  the  ground.  Trees  are  known  that 
exceed  these  in  height  or  in  diameter  alone,  a  Eucalyptus  over  four 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  and  a  chestnut  over  sixty  feet  in 
diameter  being  examples  ;  but,  taken  as  a  whole,  our  tree  is  probably 
without  a  peer.  The  age  of  our  Sequoias  is  a  matter  of  dispute,  but 
some  of  those  now  standing  are  believed  to  have  been  flourishing 
trees  before  the  Christian  era.  These  mere  figures  will,  of  course, 
mean  little  to  children  unless  vivified  by  descriptions  and  by  com- 
parison with  known  objects.  The  pamphlets  advertising  routes  of 
travel  to  these  sections  supply  some  striking  comparisons.  The 
following  bit  of  description  is  from  Muir  :  "  The  young  trees  have 
slender,  simple  branches  down  to  the  ground,  put  on  with  strict  regu- 
larity. By  the  time  the  sapling  is  five  or  six  hundred  years  old,  the 
spiry,  juvenile  habit  merges  into  the  firm,  rounded,  dome-form  of 
middle  age,  which  in  turn  takes  on  the  eccentric  picturesqueness  of 
old  age. ' '  That  millions  of  seeds  are  ripened  in  a  single  year  is  literally 
true,  and  although  the  squirrels  may  have  ninety-nine  out  of  every 
hundred,  there  are  still  more  than  enough  to  keep  our  forests  well 
supplied  with  new  trees,  if  only  the  devastation  of  shepherds  and 
lumber  men  can  be  checked. 

Great  forests  of  Redwood,  Sequoia  sempervirens,  Endl.,  occupy 
our  coast  ranges  from  Oregon  to  San  Luis  Obispo.  These  trees,  too, 
are  giants,  being  from  two  to  three  hundred  feet  high  and  from  eight 
to  twelve  feet  in  diameter.  The  children  are  pretty  sure  to  know 
something  of  their  value.  Pictures  and  descriptions  of  lumbering 

99 


SUPPLEMENT 

among  the  redwoods  can  be  found  in  "Picturesque  California," 
page  453- 

The  Douglas  spruce,  Pseudotsuga  Douglasii,  popularly  called  the 
Oregon  Pine,  grows  in  dense  forests  in  Oregon  and  Washington, 
where  it  is  frequently  three  hundred  feet  high.  It  is  also  widely  dis- 
tributed in  California,  its  variety  macrocarpa  extending  to  the  very 
southern  counties.  In  Ix>s  Angeles  County  it  is  found  at  lower  alti- 
tudes than  the  other  Coniferae.  It  is  not  a  true  pine  ;  its  leaves  are 
linear,  not  needle-like  ;  they  are  two-ranked  and  are  petioled.  The 
most  characteristic  feature  of  the  tree  is  its  cones,  which  have  fringe- 
like  bracts  overlapping  the  scales.  Of  the  true  pines,  the  most 
majestic  is  probably  Pinus  Lambertiana,  Torr.,  popularly  known  as  the 
sugar  pine  because  of  the  sugar  that  exudes  from  its  heartwood  when 
wounded.  This  tree,  too,  ranges  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  three 
hundred  feet  in  height  and  from  ten  to  twenty  in  diameter.  It  can  be 
readily  recognized  from  its  cones  ;  they  are  from  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches  in  length  and,  when  open,  from  four  to  five  inches  in  diameter. 
Its  needles  are  in  fascicles  of  five,  but  are  only  about  three  inches 
long  ;  the  bark  is  broken  by  fissures  into  small  scales  or  plates.  The 
bark  of  the  yellow  pine,  P.  ponderosa,  Dougl.,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
in  massive  plates  ;  its  needles,  eight  inches  long,  are  in  groups  of 
three,  but  its  cones  are  only  about  four  inches  long.  This  pine  rivals 
the  other  in  height  and  has  a  much  wider  range,  being  by  far  the 
more  common  in  the  mountains  of  Southern  California.  Both  of 
these  pines  are  prominent  in  the  Sierra  forest  belt,  and  are  vividly 
characterized  by  Muir.  Also  of  this  illustrious  company  of  mountain 
kings,  are  the  silver  firs,  Abies  concolnr,  Lindl  ,  and  A.  magnified, 
Murr.,  slender,  beautifully  symmetrical,  silvery  trees,  hardly  less  than 
the  others  in  height,  "  the  younger  trees  dressed  with  such  loving 
care  that  not  a  leaf  seems  wanting." 

From  our  list  of  Coniferae,  the  nut-pines  should  not  be  omitted. 
P.  Sabiniana,  Dougl.,  grows  on  the  hot  foot-hills  of  the  western 
slopes  of  the  mountains  ;  it  has  sparse  foliage  but  very  large  cones. 
P.  monophylla,  T.  &  F.,  is  the  nut-pine  of  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Sierras  and  the  arid  regions  beyond.  The  cones  of  this  species  are 
very  small  but  are  full  of  nuts  ;  Muir  believes  that  in  fruitful  years 
the  crop  of  these  nuts  exceeds  the  wheat  crop  of  California  ;  his 
account  of  the  gathering  of  the  nuts  by  the  Indians  would  be  sure  to 
appeal  to  school  children,  to  whom  the  nuts  or  piiions  are  familiar 
objects.  The  coast,  or  Monterey  pine,  P.  insignis,  Dougl.,  has  been 
already  referred  to  as  our  most  common  cultivated  pine.  Its  leaves 
are  in  threes  and  are  from  four  to  six  inches  long ;  the  cones  are 

100 


CHAPTER   XIII 

pointed  and  curve  inward  ;  they  remain  on  the  tree  several  years 
without  opening. 

In  classifying  Angiosperms,  the  system  adopted  in  Campbell's  text 
book,  that  of  the  German  botanist,  Eichler,  is  followed.  In  studying 
seedlings,  Chapter  II,  the  distinction  between  monocotyledons  and 
dicotyledons  was  noted.  In  their  earliest  stages,  both  exogenous  and 
endogenous  stems  consist  of  pith  in  which  woody  fibers  are  scattered, 
but  the  woody  bundles  of  the  exogen  soon  form  a  ring  surrounded, 
as  noted  in  Chapter  VIII,  Supplement,  by  a  cambium  layer  that  adds 
each  year  new  rings  of  wood  and  bark.  In  endogenous  stems,  the 
woody  bundles  remain  scattered  throughout  the  pith,  and,  while  near 
the  circumference  they  are  more  numerous,  rendering  the  tissue 
firm  and  strong,  there  is  no  cylinder  of  wood,  no  true  cambium, 
and  hence  no  rings  of  annual  growth.  Some  endogenous  stems  do 
not  increase  at  all  in  diameter  after  the  outside  tissues  are  fully 
formed,  a  few  increase  slowly  by  the  interposition  of  woody  fibres, 
but  by  far  the  greater  number  of  endogens  have  no  perennial  stems 
above  ground  Short  underground  perennial  stems,  that  is,  root- 
stocks,  bulbs,  corms  and  the  like,  are  very  common  in  this  group. 
Other  common  characteristics,  as  the  children  will  discover  for  them- 
selves, are  entire,  parallel-veined,  and  often,  long,  vertical  leaves  ;  and 
flowers  whose  parts  are  in  threes. 

Of  the  group  Iviliflorse,  the  order  Liliacese  alone  has  two  thousand 
species,  many  of  these  common  in  cultivation,  so  that  material  for 
the  study  of  family  traits  is  not  difficult  to  obtain.  The  lily-of-the- 
valley,  tulips,  crown  imperial  and  some  other  favorite  garden  plants 
in  more  humid  climates,  are  rather  rare  in  California  ;  but  several  of 
the  lily-like  plants  enumerated  in  the  Reader  are  common.  The 
smilax,  or  more  correctly  the  Mersiphyllum,  blooms  very  freely 
early  in  the  year  ;  its  little  star-like,  white  lilies  have  a  delicious 
fragrance,  and  attract  guests  in  throngs.  The  foliage  of  this  plant 
is  unique  ;  the  true  leaves  are  reduced  to  mere  scales  in  whose  axils 
grow  the  flowers  and  also  the  apparent  leaves,  which  are  really  modi- 
fied branches.  Besides  the  native  lilies  mentioned  in  Chapter  VII 
and  its  Supplement,  and  the  Mariposa,  Chapter  IX,  some  others  may 
have  been  encountered  before  the  children  reach  this  chapter.  There 
are  several  very  handsome  species  of  native  Brodiaeas,  some  of  them 
now  under  cultivation  ;  B.  minor,  Wats.,  with  umbels  of  large  violet 
flowers  is  rather  common  in  Southern  California  ;  B.  laxa,  Wats., 
sometimes  called  Ithuriel's  spear,  has  still  larger  umbels  ;  it  is  rare 
in  the  south,  but  fairly  common  in  rich,  shaded  soil  further  north  ; 
some  of  the  species  of  Brodisea  are  white,  yellow,  and  even  scarlet, 

101 


SUPPLEMENT 

but  they  usually  bloom  late,  and  only  on  the  more  northern  hills  and 
mountains.  The  golden-star  lily  is  Bloomeria  aurea,  Kell.;  its  tall, 
showy  umbels  deck  many  a  dry  hillside  after  the  greater  part  of  the 
spring  vegetation,  including  its  own  leaves,  has  withered.  The 
flowers,  which  seem  so  openly  hospitable,  really  exclude  all  but  bees 
and  butterflies  from  their  honey  by  means  of  peculiar  appendages  at 
the  base  of  the  stamens.  The  soap-root  will  be  taken  up  in  Chapter 
XV,  also  some  of  the  genus  Iviltum  that  bloom  in  summer. 

The  Yucca  of  the  illustration  is  Y.  Whipplei,  Torr  ,  which,  with  its 
variety  graminifolia,  is  common  throughout  the  southern  foot-hills. 
After  some  years  of  preparation,  the  rootstock  with  its  clusters  of 
bayonet-like  leaves,  sends  up  a  flower  stem  which,  in  a  few  weeks, 
attains  a  height  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  and  bears  literally 
thousands  of  flowers,  forming  one  of  the  most  beautiful  flower  panicles 
in  nature.  The  tree  Yucca,  or  "  Yucca  palm,"  of  the  Mohave  Desert 
is  Y.  arborescens,  Torr.,  a  remarkable  plant  in  its  details,  as  well  as  in 
general  appearance.  From  its  base  countless  roots,  slender  as  whip 
cords,  radiate  in  every  direction,  extending  long  distances  but  lying 
near  the  surface.  Its  trunk  and  branches  are  for  a  long  time  clothed 
with  savage,  reflexed  leaves,  but  when  these  finally  fall,  the  stem  is 
seen  to  have  acquired  bark  of  considerable  thickness,  and  a  section  of  it 
shows  concentric  rings  characteristic  of  exogenous  rather  than  endoge- 
nous stems.  The  growth  of  this  Yucca  stem  and  of  another  phenomenal 
endogen,  the  dragon-tree  of  W.  Africa,  which  has  been  known  to 
attain  seventy  feet  in  height  and  sixteen  feet  in  diameter,  has 
received  much  attention,  but  the  subject  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this 
work.  Y.  Mohavensis,  Sargent,  with  fleshy,  purplish  fruits,  has  a 
wide  range  in  California  and  in  the  South  West  generally,  and  is 
extremely  variable  in  form. 

The  pollination  of  the  Yuccas  has"  long  been  a  subject  of  close 
observation  and  study  by  both  botanists  and  entomologists.  The 
story  as  told  in  the  Reader  applies  to  any  of  the  species.  The  three 
common  California  species  have  been  individually  investigated  ;  they 
are  pollinated  by  three  different,  but  nearly  related  species  of  moths ; 
their  methods  of  procedure  vary  to  some  extent,  but  the  leading  facts 
are  the  same  in  all  cases.  The  moths  that  pollinate  Y.  Whipplei  and 
its  variety  may  be  frequently  seen  at  work  before  dark.  Most  species 
of  Yucca  mature  their  stigmas  before  the  anthers,  and  there  is  always 
a  stigmatic  cavity  (very  slender  indeed  in  Whipplei);  the  moths 
always  seek  newly  opened  flowers  for  depositing  their  eggs,  so  the 
pollen  they  bring  is  nearly  always  from  other  flowers.  The  moth 
does  not  seem  to  require  food  during  her  brief  existence  as  a  moth  • 

102 


CHAPTER   XIII 

at  any  rate,  she  has  never  been  detected  eating.  She  spends  consider- 
able time  at  the  stigma  forcing  the  pollen  down  the  stigmatic  cavity ; 
usually  she  deposits  an  egg  in  each  of  the  six  seed  divisions  of  the 
capsule,  and  repairs  each  time  to  the  stigma  to  deposit  pollen.  The 
adaptation  of  the  moth's  antennae  and  ovipositor  to  the  conditions  of 
pollination  is  perhaps  the  most  wonderful  part  of  the  story.  Some 
species  of  Yucca  secrete  a  little  honey,  but  it  seems  to  play  no  part  in 
pollination.  There  may  be  occasionally  accidental  pollination  with- 
out the  agency  of  the  moth,  but  ordinarily,  if  the  Yucca  produces 
fruit,  the  moth  is  found  on  the  flowers,  and  its  larvae  in  the  fruits. 
Summaries  of  the  studies  on  the  Yucca  were  published  in  the  annual 
report  of  the  Missouri  Botanical  Garden  issued  May  1892  and  March 
1893.  A  brief  popular  account  can  be  found  in  the  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  Vol.  41. 

Our  Yuccas  are  utilized  in  various  ways  by  the  Indians.  Not  only 
the  fleshy  fruits,  but  the  seeds  of  the  dry  fruits,  and  even  young  flower 
shoots  are  eaten  ;  the  woody  fibre  is  used  for  cordage,  horse  blankets, 
hats,  baskets,  &c.,  and  macerated  sections  of  the  stems  serve  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  soap  ;  in  these  latter  days  sections  of  pith  from  the  larger 
stems  are  put  to  various  uses  by  tradesmen,  artists,  surgeons,  scien- 
tists and  manufacturers. 

The  century  plant,  Agave  Americana,  is  indigenous  to  Mexico, 
and  the  natives  have  found  even  more  uses  for  it  than  our  Indians 
have  discovered  for  the  Yucca.  Subterranean  stems  and  leaf  fibres 
serve  similar  purposes  in  both  cases,  but  the  Mexicans  cut  off  the 
central  bud  of  the  Agave,  just  as  it  is  about  to  develop  into  the  flower 
cluster,  and  collect  the  abundant  sap  that  the  plant  has  so  long  been 
preparing  for  its  supreme  effort;  by  fermentation  or  distillation,  they 
make  of  this  juice  their  national  drinks,  pulque  and  mescal.  Califor- 
nia children  frequently  have  opportunity  to  watch  the  marvellously 
rapid  growth  and  development  of  the  Agave  flower  stalk,  and  to 
observe  the  throngs  of  winged  creatures  that  drink  honey  from  the 
overflowing  flowers. 

Most  introduced  Liliflorse  have  provisions  for  cross  pollination  so 
obvious  that  children  can  find  them  out  for  themselves.  Of  course 
the  pollinating  agent  of  their  native  country  may  not  exist  here. 
The  rushes,  Juncaceae,  like  the  lilies,  have  flowers  with  parts  in  threes, 
but  they  are  inconspicuous  and  are  adapted  to  wind  pollination.  The 
Spanish  moss,  which  so  beautifully  drapes  the  trees  of  our  South 
Eastern  States,  and  the  pine-apple  of  commerce,  also  have  flowers 
with  parts  in  threes,  and  are  usually  grouped  here  ;  the  former  has  the 
appearance  of  a  lichen,  but  is  really  a  leafless  epiphyte  living  on  moist- 

103 


SUPPLEMENT 

ure  and  organic  matter  dissolved  therein,  and  producing  true  flowers 
and  seeds  ;  what  we  eat  of  the  latter  plant  is  the  consolidated  flower 
cluster,  that  is,  the  individual  fruits  and  their  stems  grown  juicy. 
The  Tradescantia,  or  wandering-Jew,  of  cultivation,  is  usually 
assigned  to  another  but  a  nearly  related  gronp. 

The  next  group  considered  in  the  Reader  is  known  as  Spadiciflorse, 
from  the  spadix-like  inflorescence.  Duckweeds,  Lemnaceae,  are  minute 
floating  plants,  common  the  world  over  on  quiet  pools  ;  each  plant  is 
a  small  green  disc  with,  usually,  one  descending  root  ;  they  are  rarely 
found  in  flower  and  then  the  flower  is  reduced  to  a  single  stamen  or 
pistil  ;  ordinarily  they  reproduce  rapidly  by  division.  There  are 
various  other  floating  plants  of  the  order  Naiadaceae,  which  are  com- 
monly assigned  here  ;  they  are  known  as  pondweeds,  ditch  grass,  &c., 
and  they  choke  up  our  reservoirs  and  irrigating  ditches.  The  calla, 
Richardia  Africana>  is  a  type  of  a  group  of  about  one  thousand 
species,  nine-tenths  of  them  tropical.  They  are  known  as  Aroids  : 
"Jack  in  the  pulpit,"  sweet  flag  and  skunk  cabbage,  common  in  our 
Eastern  States,  belong  here  ;  so  does  our  cultivated  black  lily  with  its 
livid  colors  and  fcetid  odor  that  attract  carrion-eating  insects.  The 
tropical  aroids  sometimes  attain  most  luxuriant  growth  ;  one  from  the 
Island  of  Sumatra  produced  in  Kew  Gardens,  London,  a  spathe  six 
feet  long  and  about  three  in  circumference,  with  leaves  and  rootstock 
in  the  same  proportion.  There  are  climbing  aroids  that  clamber  over 
the  tops  of  forests  and  send  down  aerial  roots,  which  fasten  themselves 
in  the  soil. 

There  are  about  a  thousand  known  species  of  palms  also.  Two 
genera  are  native  to  California,  one  species,  Washingtonia  filifera, 
Wend.,  being  common  in  cultivation  ;  a  tree  of  this  species,  in  Los 
Angeles,  known  to  be  fifty  years  old,  is  sixty  feet  high.  Several  foreign 
palms,  too,  thrive  well  out  of  doors  in  our  climate,  and  since  palms 
are  so  typical  of  the  vegetation  of  the  tropics,  and  have  there  so  great 
economic  value,  it  is  desirable  to  emphasize  the  group  in  connection 
with  Geography  work.  As  can  be  seen  from  our  own  palms,  the 
inflorescence  is  usually  crowded,  consisting  of  great  numbers  of  small 
flowers,  sometimes  perfect,  sometimes  staminate  or  pistillate  only. 
The  fruits  may  be  berries,  drupes  or  nuts.  Palms  growing  in  a  very 
hot  and  humid  climate  must  have  enormous  leaf  surface  for  sufficient 
transpiration.  The  following  figures  are  taken  mainly  from  Kerner  : 
A  Brazilian  palm  has  pinnate  leaves  seventy  feet  long  and  twenty-five 
feet  broad  ;  the  Talipot  palm  of  Ceylon  has  palmate  leaves  eighteen 
by  twenty-five  feet,  and  other  parts  in  proportion  ;  in  the  course  of 
forty  years,  its  trunk  attains  a  height  of  about  seventy  feet ;  it  then 

104 


CHAPTER   XIII 

sends  out  from  the  top  an  inflorescence  forty  feet  high  and  thirty-five 
in  diameter  ;  after  maturing  the  fruit  from  this  cluster,  the  Talipot, 
like  the  century  plant,  dies.  But  there  are  other  palms  that  mature 
great  abundance  of  fruit  every  year.  The  cocoa  nut  palm,  now  culti- 
vated throughout  the  tropics,  yields  from  one  hundred  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  nuts  a  year  for  perhaps  forty  years.  The  fruit  of  the 
date  palm  constitutes  the  main  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Arabian 
and  African  deserts.  Sometimes  the  main  food  supply  is  stored  in  the 
trunk  of  the  palm  ;  in  the  East  Indies  the  pith  of  a  sago  palm  fifteen 
years  old  has  been  known  to  supply  eight  hundred  pounds  of  sago. 
The  fruits  of  a  West  African  palm  supply  the  palm  oil  of  commerce  ; 
the  nuts  of  others  furnish  a  substitute  for  ivory  ;  several  kinds  of 
palms  have  their  young  leaves  coated  with  a  wax  of  commercial  value, 
and  so  on.  The  multitudinous  uses  the  natives  find  for  cocoa  palms 
can  be  looked  up,  as  suggested  in  the  Reader,  and  are  sure  to  interest 
children.  Palms  have  been  known  to  attain  a  height  of  one  hundred 
and  eighty  feet,  but  the  greatest  measurement  attained  is  by  some 
of  the  climbing  palms  ;  Kerner  says  that  a  length  of  six  hundred  feet 
has  been  recorded. 

There  are  thirty-five  hundred  species  of  grasses,  and  some  of  the 
species  are  so  very  widely  cultivated  that  this  number  fails  to  indicate 
the  importance  of  the  family.  Family  traits  are  easily  seen.  The 
leaves  are  linear  and  have  sheathing  bases  ;  the  stems  are  jointed,  and 
in  most  species  are  hollow  between  the  joints  ;  the  flowers,  when 
perfect,  have  usually  three  stamens  and  two  very  feathery  stigmas, 
but  many  grasses  besides  the  corn  have  unisexual  flowers.  The 
flowers  rarely  show  traces  of  a  perianth,  and  the  usual  arrangement  of 
bracts  surrounding  them  can  be  easily  seen  in  the  wild  oats,  or  in  the 
staminate  flowers  of  the  corn.  An  inner  bract  very  closely  invests  the 
flower  and  an  outer  bract  nearly  envelopes  this  flower  and  the  inner 
bract ;  finally  two  or  three  flowers,  or  florets,  with  their  bracts  are 
together  enclosed  in  another  pair  of  bracts  called  the  glumes ;  these 
groups,  called  spikelets,  are  clustered  in  various  ways ;  they  form  a 
panicle  in  oats,  a  spike  in  barley,  and  so  on.  The  root  system  of  the 
corn  seedling,  Chapter  II,  is  typical  of  annual  grasses.  In  tropical 
countries  some  grasses,  like  the  bamboo,  have  perennial  stems  that 
attain  the  height  of  trees  ;  the  bamboo  is  sometimes  seventy-five  feet 
high.  In  temperate  climates  the  vertical  stems  of  most  perennial 
grasses,  unless  artificially  treated,  die  down  annually,  only  the  long 
horizontal  stems,  above  of  below  ground,  being  perennial  ;  Bermuda 
grass  and  the  Kentucky  blue  grass  of  our  lawns  are  examples,  also 
the  perennial  grasses  that  persist  in  our  moist  alkali  lands. 

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SUPPLEMENT 

The  strength  and  flexibility  of  the  stems  of  grasses  have  been 
already  noted.  The  leaves  are  usually  well  adapted  to  their  environ- 
ment, the  species  in  humid  climates  being  able  to  shed  water  because 
of  lines  of  wax,  while  many  genera  of  drier  regions  have  the  power 
of  folding  and  unfolding  their  leaves  to  meet  the  varying  conditions 
of  the  atmosphere.  Kerner  devotes  several  beautifully  illustrated 
pages  to  this  latter  habit.  The  devices  for  the  pollination  of  grasses  are 
very  interesting,  but  they  require  close  observation.  In  general,  the 
pair  of  feathery  stigmas  protrude  from  their  wrappings  for  some 
time  before  the  anthers  are  allowed  to  escape;  the  bracts  separate  to 
allow  the  exsertion  of  the  anthers  only  under  favorable  conditions  as 
to  temperature  and  moisture;  as  soon  as  the  anthers  are  exposed,  the 
filaments  lengthen  almost  as  if  by  magic,  attaining  their  full  length 
in  a  few  minutes;  the  pollen  is  shaken  from  the  suspended  anthers  in 
the  course  of  perhaps  half  an  hour,  though  the  empty  cells  may  re- 
main for  a  day  or  so.  The  fruits  of  grasses,  or  rather  the  bracts  that 
invest  them,  are  frequently  provided  with  barbed  bristles,  or  awns, 
that  aid  in  seed  distribution.  The  awns  of  several  genera  besides  the 
oats  are  hygrometric,  the  motion  being  spiral  in  the  genus  Stipa. 
These  awns,  of  course,  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  styles  of  the  fil- 
aree  fruits. 

Identification  of  grasses  is  exceedingly  difficult,  but  we  have  an 
illustrated  flora,  the  "  Grasses  of  the  South  West."  California  has 
some  nutritious  native  grasses  known  as  bunch  grasses,  but  generally 
our  native  grasses  are  not  abundant  and  are  yielding  place  to  foreign 
species,  the  most  notable  of  which  will  be  described  in  Chapter  XVI. 
No  plant  family  can  be  compared  with  the  grasses  in  economic  value. 
Rice,  now  universally  cultivated  in  the  tropics,  feeds  millions  of  the 
human  race,  and  wheat  comes  next.  Wheat  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  Asia,  but  it  has  been  cultivated  in  Europe  from  prehis- 
toric times.  Barley  and  rye  are  probably  of  European  origin;  Indian 
corn  is  American.  Oats  are  of  special  value  in  countries  with  a  brief 
growing  season.  The  cultivation  of  the  sugar  cane  is  still  a  leading 
industry  in  warm  countries;  sorghum  is  nearly  related  to  sugar  cane, 
and  so  is  broom-corn  The  uses  of  the  bamboo  to  the  natives  of  trop- 
ical Asia  are  well  known. 

The  Canna-banana  group  is  tropical,  but  should  be  studied  because 
of  its  geographical  importance.  Sections  of  the  apparent  stems  of 
the  banana,  its  flower  clusters  and  young  fruits  are  frequently  acces- 
sible. The  apparent  stem  consists  mainly  of  sheathing  petioles;  the 
dark  red  bracts  constitute  the  showy  part  of  the  flower  cluster; 
individual  flowers  have  inferior,  three-celled  ovaries,  six-parted 

106 


CHAPTER   XIII 

irregular  perianths,  and  five  stamens  with  some  traces  of  pollen. 
Like  many  other  highly  cultivated  plants,  bananas  have  lost  the 
power  of  producing  fertile  seeds.  The  banana  and  the  nearly  related 
plantain  are  the  staple  food  plants  in  many  parts  of  the  tropics;  their 
productiveness  in  suitable  soil  is  almost  incredible;  it  is  said  that  an 
acre  can  produce  sixty-six  tons  of  fruit,  a  fact  that  helps  to  explain 
the  indolence  of  the  natives. 

The  Orchid  family  is  next  to  the  Compositse  in  number  of  species, 
the  estimate  being  eight  thousand.  The  plants  are  most  interesting 
in  their  habits;  many  of  the  tropical  species  are  epiphytes  in  the 
tops  of  forest  trees,  others  are  saprophytes.  The  flowers  are,  of  all 
known  species,  the  most  highly  specialized  with  reference  to  insect 
visits.  But  California  is  very  poor  in  orchids,  so  that  actual  observa- 
tion work  with  them  would  be  rarely  feasible,  and  they  are  not  of 
sufficient  economical  importance  to  warrant  study  from  books  on 
that  pretext;  so  little  space  is  assigned  them  here.  Orchids 
have  an  inferior,  one-celled  ovary  and  a  six-parted  perianth, 
one  part  of  the  perianth,  called  the  lip,  being  very  conspic- 
uous. Most  species  have  but  one  fertile  anther;  the  lady-slipper 
is  an  exception,  having  two.  The  anthers  are  usually  united 
with  the  pistil.  The  lady-slipper,  Cypripedium,  a  genus  not 
rare  in  the  north,  admits  guests  only  where  they  must  strike 
the  stigma  ;  once  within  the  banquet  hall,  that  is,  the  lower 
lip,  the  guest's  only  exit  is  via  the  anthers,  and  these  exits  are  so 
narrow  that  he  must  smear  his  shoulders  with  pollen.  The  genus 
Habenaria  is  the  one  that  compels  its  guests  to  carry  pollen  masses 
on  their  eyes;  there  are  several  California  species  of  Habenaria  bear- 
ing spikes  of  small  white  or  greenish  white  flowers,  but  they  are 
not  abundant  and  would  rarely  be  noticed  ;  those  I  have  observed 
have  been  fully  pollinated.  Illustrations  of  a  British  Habenaria 
and  a  full  description  of  its  pollination  are  given  in  most  botanical 
text  books.  The  orchid  referred  to  in  the  Reader  as  hurling  its  pol- 
len masses,  is  Catasetum  saccatum,  fully  described  by  Darwin,  also 
by  Kerner.  Orchids  have  the  smallest  of  all  seeds;  so  minute  are 
they  that,  like  spores,  they  may  remain  suspended  in  the  atmosphere, 
and  so  are  widely  distributed. 


107 


SUPPLEMENT 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


PLANT  FAfllLIES.     PART    II.     EXOGENS  OR 
DICOTYLEDONS. 

The  characteristics  of  Dicotyledons  have  already  been  indicated  in 
Chapters  II  and  XIII,  and  the  structure  of  perennial  exogenous 
stems  has  been  given  in  the  Supplement  to  Chapter  VIII.  There  is 
little  observation  work  with  new  plants  suggested  in  this  Chapter,  its 
aim  being  mainly  to  review  systematically  plants  already  studied, 
and  to  aid  in  Geography  work. 

The  members  of  group  I  come  under  the  Apetalae,  if  this  division  is 
made.  Many  of  the  native  trees  of  the  group  have  been  already  con- 
sidered in  Chapter  VIII  and  its  Supplement.  The  willow  belongs  to 
the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  extends  well  up  into  arctic  regions. 
The  two  species  of  Populus  that  grow  along  our  streams,  P.  tricho- 
carpa,  Torr.,  and  P.  Fremonti,  Wats.,  are  indiscriminately  called 
cottonwood,  or  poplar;  the  mountain  species,  P.  tremuloides,  is 
known  as  aspen.  Our  fine  park  or  field  live  oak,  the  Spanish  encino, 
which  is  common  near  the  coast,  is  Quercus  agrifolia,  Nee. ;  near 
Los  Angeles  this  is  interspersed  with  O.  Engelmanni,  Greene.  Q. 
chrysolepis,  Liebm.,  of  the  mountains  sometimes  attains  immense  size; 
the  noble  white  oak,  or  Roble,  Q.  Lobata,  Nee.,  with  its  deciduous 
lobed  leaves,  is  found  in  fertile  valleys,  especially  northward;  Q.  den- 
siflora,  H.  &  A.,  the  chestnut  oak,  or  tan  bark  oak,  has  bark  so  valu- 
able for  tanning  leather  that  the  species  seems  doomed  to  extinction. 
Oaks  throughout  the  North  Temperate  zone  are  prized  as  ornamental 
and  timber  trees;  several  species  are  valued  for  tanning;  the  cork  oak 
of  Mediterranean  regions  is  sometimes  seen  in  cultivation  in  Cali- 
fornia. While  the  walnut  of  the  old  world  can  be  very  profitably 
cultivated  in  parts  of  California,  the  native  walnut  does  not  compare 
in  size  with  that  of  our  Eastern  States.  There  are  several  other 
members  of  this  group  much  prized  for  their  nuts  and  wood  which 
are  common  in  the  Eastern  States  but  do  not  thrive  here;  the  chest- 

108 


CHAPTER   XIV 

nut,  hickory  and  beech  are  examples.  The  birch,  whose  bark  is 
generally  known,  is  very  rare  in  California,  and  we  have  to  do  with- 
out the  elms,  that  are  such  a  feature  of  Eastern  and  European  land- 
scapes. Our  alders  are  specially  fine,  being  trees  rather  than  shrubs. 

The  fig,  or  Ficus,  family  is  a  notable  one  in  the  tropics.  Many 
species  have  remarkable  roots.  The  India  rubber,  Ficus  elastica, 
sometimes  attains  sufficient  size  in  our  climate  to  show  its  buttress- 
like  roots.  Other  species  of  Ficus  have  climbing,  lattice-like  roots, 
which  the  natives  sometimes  convert  into  living  bridges.  Still 
others  send  down  from  their  branches  many  aerial  roots  which  fasten 
themselves  in  the  soil  and  become  sturdy  columns,  resembling 
trunks  and  serving  the  same  purpose.  The  banyan  trees  of  India 
are  of  this  sort,  and  are  like  massive  roofs  supported  by  hundreds  of 
columns.  The  sacred  tree  of  the  Hindoos  is  Ficus  religiosa;  one 
tree  is  said  to  have  sheltered  an  army  of  five  thousand  men,  and  in 
Ceylon  there  is  a  tree  of  this  species,  beneath  which  a  village  of  one 
hundred  huts  is  built.  Some  species  of  Ficus  have  juice  that  is  poi- 
sonous as  well  as  gummy  or  milky;  the  upas  tree  of  Java,  the  subject 
of  many  fabulous  stories,  does  furnish  a  deadly  poison  which  the 
natives  use  on  arrow  heads. 

The  hop,  hemp  and  mulberry  plants  are  all  akin  to  the  fig.  The 
bitter  principle  of  the  hop  is  developed  in  the  pistillate  flower  clus- 
ters. The  hemp,  besides  furnishing  fibre  for  cordage,  also  yields 
various  narcotics,  hashish  and  the  like.  The  leaves  of  several  spe- 
cies of  mulberry  are  food  for  silkworms.  The  berries  are  the  flower 
clusters,  perianths,  stems  and  all  having  grown  juicy.  The  bread- 
fruit tree  of  the  tropics  is  nearly  related  to  the  mulberry;  its  aggre- 
gate fruits  are  baked  just  before  maturity.  The  nettle  family  is  a 
large  one,  and  is  widely  distributed;  a  few  members,  the  ramie  for 
instance,  are  valuable  fibre  plants.  The  tree  nettle  is  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high.  There  is  a  curious  Australian  tree 
family,  Casuarinacese,  belonging  to  this  group;  one  species  is  cultivated 
to  some  extent  in  California;  it  is  leafless,  but  has  slender,  drooping, 
jointed  branches  resembling  those  of  the  Equisetum. 

The  yerba  mansa  is  Anemopsis  (Houttuynia\  Californica^  B.  &  H. 
The  involucre  is  petaloid  and  conspicuous,  and  each  little,  fleshy 
flower  is  subtended  by  a  minute  white  bract;  the  plant  has  a  pungent 
odor.  There  are  several  unique  plant  families  that  are  sometimes 
assigned  to  this  group  and  sometimes  left  unclassified;  the  mistletoe 
family  Loranthaceae;  the  parasitic  RafBesiacese,  and  the  family  Aris- 
tolochiaceae;  the  last  is  mainly  tropical,  but  two  species,  the  Dutch- 
man's pipe,  Aristolochia  Californica,  Torr.,  and  the  wild  ginger, 

109 


SUPPLEMENT 

Asarum  caudatum,  L/indl.,  grow  somewhat  sparingly  in  our  moun- 
tains. Some  small  species  of  the  Rafflesiacese  are  found  in  our  arid 
regions,  but  in  the  tropics  the  flowers  of  this  group  attain  monstrous 
size,  as  was  noted  in  Chapter  IV.  Mistletoe  is  very  common  on  the 
oaks,  the  sycamores  and  junipers,  and  to  some  extent  on  other  trees, 
in  our  canons  and  mountains.  It  draws  nourishment  from  the  host 
plant  by  means  of  little  modified  rootlets,  called  sinkers,  which  reach 
into  the  newly  forming  wood  cells.  The  flowers  are  inconspicuous; 
the  berries  are  familiar  objects  at  Christmas  time;  the  seeds  are,  of 
course,  distributed  by  birds. 

Six  of  the  seven  families  that  constitute  the  next  group  are  well 
represented  in  California;  four  of  them  are  entirely  apetalous,  but  the 
highest  two  families  have  some  apetalous  genera  and  other  genera 
with  complete  flowers.  Our  representatives  of  the  order  Nyctagin- 
aceae  have  showy  calyxes.  The  four-o'clock,  Mirabilis  California!, 
is  described  in  the  Supplement  to  Chapter  VII;  the  sand  verbenas, 
Abronias,  are  common  on  our  beaches  and  deserts,  and  are  interesting 
types  of  the  plants  of  arid  regions.  The  family  Amarantaceae  is  too 
well  represented  by  the  tumbleweeds;  Chenopodiaceae,  by  the  goose- 
foot,  pig-weed  and  the  like  ;  Polygonaceae  by  dock,  canaigre,  knot- 
weed  and  Russian  thistle,  all  of  which  weeds  will  be  considered  in 
Chapter  XVI.  The  beet,  spinach  and  the  rhubarb,  or  pie  plant,  of  our 
gardens  belong  here.  The  sugar  beet  is  only  a  variety  of  the  common 
beet,  Beta  vulgaris.  The  Briogonums,  described  in  Chapter  XV,  be- 
long to  the  family  Polygonacese,  so  does  the  genus  Chorizanthe; 
species  of  the  latter  genus  grow  very  profusely  in  sandy  soil  ;  the 
clustered  leaves  appear  early  in  the  year,  but  the  prickly  white  or 
pink  flower  clusters  do  not  come  until  early  summer,  when  the  low 
plants  are  much  branched,  and  are  dry  and  brittle.  The  pink  family, 
Caryophyllaceae,  is  a  large  one,  and  is  especially  well  represented  in 
northern  or  mountain  regions;  the  weedy  members,  chickweed,  sand- 
spurry  and  catchfly,  are  noted  in  the  Supplement  to  Chapters  VII 
and  XVI.  Our  handsomest  native  species,  Silene  laciniata,  is 
described  in  Chapter  XV.  The  family  Portulacacese  has  compara- 
tively few  species;  the  purslane  (Chapter  XVI),  miner's  lettuce 
(Chapter  VII,  Supplement)  and  Calandrinia  (Chapter  IX,  Supplement) 
are  our  most  common  representatives. 

The  families  of  the  third  group  of  Choripetalae,  are  included  in  the 
Polypetalae  of  the  older  books,  all  but  a  few  genera  having  both 
calyx  and  corolla.  The  lower  families  have  all  their  parts  free  and 
distinct,  the  higher  have  compound  pistils.  The  family  Ranuncula- 
ceae,  usually  placed  first  or  lowest,  has  no  union  of  parts  ;  the  peony 

110 


CHAPTER    XIV 

and  buttercup  are  considered  in  Chapter  VII ;  the  larkspur  and  col- 
umbine in  Chapter  XV.  Clematis  and  meadow  rue,  common  in 
canons,  have  no  corolla,  and  some  species  have  unisexual  flowers. 
The  calyx  of  the  clematis  is  showy,  being  white  in  our  native  species, 
purple  in  some  introduced  species;  the  fruits  with  their  long  plume- 
like  appendages  (the  styles)  are  conspicuous  in  autumn.  The  leaves 
of  the  meadow  rue  are  tri-compound,  and  are  somewhat  like  the 
maiden  hair  fern  ;  the  flowers  are  greenish,  and  are  adapted  to  wind 
pollination.  The  barberry,  while  not  rare  in  California  mountains,  is 
not  commonly  known.  The  laurel  or  bay,  Umbellularia  Calif ornica, 
Nutt.,is  a  handsome  tree,  common  not  far  from  water  in  mountain 
canons;  it  belongs  to  the  laurel  family  and  is  nearly  related  to  the 
bay  or  laurel  of  Southern  Europe,  whose  leaves,  formerly  used  to 
crown  heroes,  are  now  put  to  more  prosaic  uses,  such  as  flavoring 
gravies,  puddings,  dried  figs  and  the  like.  Nutmeg  is  the  seed  of  an 
P^ast  Indian  tree;  mace  is  the  envelope  of  this  seed;  cinnamon  is  the 
bark  of  a  tree  of  Ceylon  ;  cassia  bark  and  buds  are  also  from 
Ceylon  ;  camphor  is  the  gum  of  a  tree  of  China  and  Japan  ;  sassafras 
is  a  common  shrub  in  our  Eastern  States. 

The  magnolia,  and  several  other  ornamental  and  timber  trees, 
belong  to  this  group.  There  are  several  aquatic  families  in  this  group, 
but  they  have  few  representatives  in  California.  The  lotus,  Nelum- 
bium,  is  common  in  the  ponds  of  our  parks  ;  its  nut-like  fruits  are 
imbedded  in  a  top-shaped  receptacle.  The  Victoria  tegia  of  the 
Amazon  valley  is  noted  for  the  size  of  its  leaves  and  flowers  ;  the 
leaves  frequently  exceed  six  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  flowers  are 
sometimes  a  foot  across. 

The  mustard  and  poppy  families  have  been  pretty  fully  treated  in 
Chapter  IX  and  its  Supplement ;  the  opium  poppy  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  India,  the  crude  opium  being  the  juice  that  exudes 
from  slits  cut  in  the  green  capsules.  The  caper  family,  Capparida- 
cese,  very  nearly  related  to  the  Cruciferae,  has  a  few  representatives 
in  California  ;  one  of  them,  Isomeris  arborea,  Nutt.,  is  alow,  strongly 
scented  shrub,  common  near  the  sea  ;  it  has  yellow  flowers  and 
inflated  pods  on  stipes  ;  the  capers  of  commerce  are  the  unopened 
flower  buds  of  a  European  species.  The  Dicentras,  "  bleed  ing  hearts," 
and  golden  ear-drops,  belong  to  another  nearly  related  family,  but 
they  are  rather  rare  in  California. 

Violets  and  mignonette  belong  to  this  group  ;  also  some  very  inter- 
esting insectivorous  plants,  the  sundew,  the  Venus  fly-trap  and 
pitcher  plants.  The  sundew,  Drosera,  and  a  very  remarkable 
pitcher  plant,  Darlingtonia  Calif  ornica,  are  found  in  remote  moun- 

111 


SUPPLEMENT 

tain  districts,  but  would  rarely  be  available  for  class  work.  The 
plants  are  illustrated,  and  their  methods  described  in  nearly  all  text- 
books of  Botany;  the  Darlingtonia  is  treated  at  length  in  Kerner's 
work,  Watson's  "California  Flora"  and  Miss  Parsons'  "Wild 
Flowers  of  California."  It  is  not  easy  to  condense  the  stories,  so 
they  are  omitted  here.  It  is  the  leaves,  not  the  flowers,  that  capture 
the  insects,  and  in  most  cases  there  is  actual  digestion  of  the  prey. 

The  highest  families  of  this  group  are  the  Malvaceae,  referred  to 
in  the  Supplement  to  Chapters  VIII  and  IX  ;  the  I/inden  family, 
which  includes  the  linden,  or  lime  tree,  of  northern  Europe,  the  bass- 
wood  of  our  Eastern  States  and  the  chocolate  tree  of  tropical 
America  ;  and  another  family  which  includes  the  tea  tree  and  the 
Camellia.  Chocolate  is  made  from  roasted  seeds,  tea  is,  of  course,  dried 
leaves.  The  fruits  of  the  cotton  plant,  showing  the  seeds  clothed 
with  cotton  are  easily  obtained.  The  products  of  the  cotton  seed, 
i.  e.,  oil,  cottolene,  etc.,  should  be  noted. 

The  relationship  of  the  different  families  of  the  next  group  of  Chori- 
petalae  is  not  sufficiently  obvious  to  warrant  much  attention.  The 
geranium  family  is  rather  fully  considered  in  Chapter  X,  and  our 
common  species  of  Rhus,  Rhamnus  and  Ceancthus  in  the  Supple- 
ment to  Chapter  VIII.  The  poison  sumach  and  poison  ivy  of  our 
Eastern  States  are  species  of  Rhus.  Some  of  the  best  known  orna- 
mental and  timber  trees  of  other  climates  belong  here  ;  the  numerous 
maples,  box-elder,  horse-chestnut,  buckeye,  the  true  holly,  and  many 
trees  of  the  tropics  and  Southern  Hemispheres,  the  small  tree  that 
furnishes  mate",  or  Paraguay  tea,  being  the  most  important  economi- 
cally. The  citrus  trees  have  been  introduced  mainly  from  India  ;  our 
cultivated  grapes  are  mostly  from  Europe,  but  the  most  common 
grapes  of  our  Eastern  States  have  been  cultivated  from  native  species. 
Linseed  oil,  as  well  as  linen,  is  a  product  of  flax. 

No  characteristic  that  is  universally  true  of  Euphorbiaceae  can  be 
affirmed,  so  little  attention  should  be  given  to  the  kinship  of  our 
scattered  species.  They  are  all  considered  elsewhere  in  the  Supple- 
ment, and  Euphorbias  of  special  economic  importance  are  sufficiently 
indicated  in  the  Reader. 

The  highest  group  of  Choripetalae  is  characterized  in  the  Reader, 
and  many  of  its  families  are  so  well  represented  with  us  that  they  are 
treated  specially  in  other  chapters  :  Umbelliferse  in  Chapter  XII, 
Onagraceae  in  Chapters  IX  and  XV,  Cactaceae  and  the  nearly  related 
succulent  orders  in  Chapter  XV,  Saxifragaceae  in  Supplement  to 
Chapters  V,  VIII  and  IX,  Rosaceae  in  Supplement  to  Chapters  VIII 
and  XV,  and  Leguminosae  in  Chapter  X.  There  are  two  families 

112 


CHAPTER   XIV 

nearly  related  to  the  Umbelliferse,  but  they  are  not  well  represented 
in  California.  The  dogwood  family,  or  Cornaceae,  has  a  few  species 
along  our  streams ;  the  flowers  are  white,  and  grow  in  large  cymose 
clusters,  the  northern  species  being  very  handsome.  The  only 
familiar  representative  of  the  other  family  is  the  English  Ivy.  The 
edible  fruits  of  the  rose  family  are  pretty  thoroughly  discussed  in  the 
Supplement  to  Chapter  VIII.  The  rose  hip  is  a  fleshy,  urn-shaped 
receptacle  in  which  many  hard  akenes  are  borne,  i.  e.,  it  differs  from 
the  strawberry  in  having  a  concave  instead  of  a  convex  receptacle. 
The  fruit  of  the  California  holly,  also  a  member  of  the  rose  family,  is 
perhaps  strictly  a  pome,  but  it  is  apparently  a  berry.  The  service 
berry  of  the  mountains,  Amelanchier,  has  also  a  pome  fruit.  From 
the  children's  list  of  Iveguminosae  of  economic  value,  the  peanut 
should  not  be  omitted  ;  the  nut  is,  of  course,  the  legume  ;  the  plant 
naturally  buries  its  fruit  as  a  protective  measure,  and  this  habit  is 
preserved  in  cultivation.  Among  timber  trees  are  a  sort  of  rose  wood, 
many  kinds  of  Acacia  and  the  locust.  The  indigo  plant  of  India  is 
a  member  of  this  family  ;  the  dye  is  obtained  from  the  macerated 
leaves  by  a  process  that  always  interests  children. 

Plants  whose  flowers  have  their  petals  united  are  now  called  Sym- 
petalse,  the  old  name  was  Garnopetalae  or  Monopetalae.  The  heath 
group  is  a  large  one,  including  over  two  thousand  species,  some  of 
which  adapt  themselves  well  to  rocky  mountain  slopes,  others  to 
sandy  plains,  and  still  others  to  swamps  and  moorlands.  The  man- 
zanita  and  madrone  of  our  mountains  are  referred  to  in  Chapter  VIII; 
the  snow  plant  in  Chapter  XV;  several  other  saprophy tic  members  of 
this  family  are  common  in  our  high  pine  forests.  Our  beautiful 
azalea,  Rhododendron  occidentalis,  Gray,  is  found  along  mountain 
streams  in  summer ;  another  Rhododendron,  known  as  the  rose  bay, 
is  found  in  northern  woods.  We  have  a  native  huckleberry,  but  it  is 
not  common.  The  introduced  heaths  of  our  gardens  are  mainly  from 
South  Africa.  The  primrose  group  is  also  sparingly  represented  with 
us.  The  Plumbago  is  common  in  gardens,  and  there  are  a  few  beach 
species.  The  pimpernel,  Anagallis  arvensis,  Linn.,  is  common  in  the 
vicinity  of  cultivation ,  and  blooms  the  year  round  ;  its  little  salmon- 
colored  flowers  are  very  inhospitable,  and  must  usually  pollinate 
themselves. 

The  five  families  of  sympetalous  flowers  that  make  up  the  group 
Tubiflorse,  have  been  fully  considered  already.  The  largest  of  these 
families,  the  Solanacese,  is  the  one  of  greatest  economic  value,  includ- 
ing as  it  does,  the  potato,  tomato,  egg  plant,  tobacco  and  some  other 
plants  that  yield  narcotics.  The  sweet  potato  belongs  to  the 

8  113 


•OB** 

rifr   -»-».., 


SUPPLEMENT 

family  Convolvulaceae,  and  a  few  of  the  Borraginaceae  furnish 
dyes.  Polemoniaceae  and  Hydrophyllaceae  are  small  families  of 
no  small  economic  value.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of  our 
most  attractive  introduced  plants,  as  well  as  native  ones, 
belong  to  this  and  the  following  group.  The  Petunia  and  showy 
species  of  Solanum  and  Datura  are  Solanaceae ;  the  phlox  is  nearly 
related  to  the  Gilias,  and  there  are  some  exquisite  forget-me-nots  and 
borages.  The  bilabiate  group  comprises,  besides  the  families  Labiatae 
and  Scrophulariaceae  treated  in  Chapters  XI  and  XV,  the  Verbena, 
Acanthus  and  Bignonia  families  and  a.  few  others  ;  some  of  the  culti- 
vated plants  belonging  to  this  group  are  the  verbenas,  lemon  ver- 
bena, catalpa,  Gloxinia,  foxglove  and  the  beautiful  Japanese  tree, 
Paulownia  imperialis.  The  economic  value  of  this  group  is  very 
small.  Some  members  of  the  mint  family,  rosemary,  lavender, 
thyme,  hoarhound,  and  the  like,  are  put  to  minor  uses. 

Botanists  do  not  agree  in  the  placing  of  the  members  of  the  next 
two  groups.  The  ash  of  Europe  and  our  Eastern  States  is  nearly 
related  to  the  olive.  The  gentian  family  is  a  large  one,  but  it  is  con- 
fined mainly  to  cold  climates  or  Alpine  regions  ;  we  have  a  few  beau- 
tiful species  in  our  own  mountains.  One  member  of  the  gentian 
family,  Erythrcea  venusta,  an  annual  having  very  bright  pink  flowers 
with  twisted  anthers,  is  common  in  sandy  soils  in  our  valleys  in  May 
and  June.  The  gentians  are  supposed  to  possess  some  medicinal 
value  ;  a  nearly  related  tropical  family  furnishes  strychnine  and 
other  poisons,  some  of  them  used  by  the  natives  for  tipping  their 
arrows.  The  milkweed  family,  though  sparingly  represented  in  Cali- 
fornia, is  a  very  large  one.  Two  rather  common  cultivated  plants 
belong  here,  the  wax  plant,  Hoya  carnosa,  and  a  cactiform  plant, 
Stepilia,  from  South  Africa  ;  they  can  be  readily  recognized  by  the 
peculiar  anthers.  The  dogbane,  oleander  and  periwinkle  are  nearly 
related  to  the  milkweed  family.  We  have  no  common,  conspicuous 
Campanulas  excepting  the  introduced  Canterbury  bell  ;  the  brilliant 
cardinal-flower,  Lobelia  cardinalis,  is  rare.  The  rank  of  the  family 
Cucurbitaceae  is  by  no  means  settled  ;  our  most  common  representa- 
tive, the  chilicothe  of  Chapter  V,  ha:»  unisexual  flowers  that  are  appar- 
ently apetalous,  but  the  perianth  may  be  considered  as  a  blended 
calyx  and  corolla.  The  origin  of  melons,  pumpkins  and  the  like  is 
also  a  matter  of  dispute. 

Compositae,  the  most  important  family  of  the  group  Aggregatae,  is 
the  subject  of  several  pages  of  the  Supplement  to  Chapter  XII.  It  is 
of  surprisingly  little  economic  value,  but  some  of  the  allied  families 
are  more  useful.  The  family  Dipsaceae  furnishes  the  fuller's  teasel 

114 


CHAPTER  XIV 

used  in  the  manufacture  of  woolens  ;  the  teasel  often  escapes  from 
cultivation  and  becomes  a  troublesome  weed.  The  family  Capri- 
foliacese  contains  the  elder  as  well  as  the  honeysuckle  and  snowberry, 
all  noted  in  the  Supplement  to  Chapter  VIII.  The  family  Rubiacese 
has  but  one  California  genus,  Galium,  consisting  of  low,  weak, 
square-stemmed  plants  with  leaves  in  whorls,  and  small  greenish 
flowers.  This  genus  does  not  well  illustrate  the  kinship  of  this  family 
to  Compositse  ;  the  relationship  is  more  apparent  in  some  other 
Rubiacese,  the  cultivated  button-bush  for  instance.  Two  other  genera, 
the  Cinchona  of  South  America  and  the  CofFea  of  Abyssinia,  because 
of  the  alkaloids  they  contain,  have  become  of  great  commercial 
importance,  and  are  now  widely  cultivated  in  tropical  countries. 
Quinine  is  obtained  from  the  bark  of  the  Cinchona.  The  coffee  is  a 
small  evergreen,  producing  berries  that  contain  two  seeds  each.  All 
the  coffee  of  commerce  is  from  the  same  species,  but  the  seeds  are  of 
different  quality  in  different  climates.  It  has  been  cultivated  in 
Arabia  for  five  centuries,  and  in  Java  for  two. 


115 


SUPPLEMENT 


CHAPTER  XV. 


SOME  SUMMER  FLOWERS. 

From  May  until  the  autumn  rains,  the  prevailing  brownness  of  the 
California  landscape  is  likely  to  mislead  one  into  laying  aside  all 
study  of  living  plants,  and  so  into  missing  some  of  nature's  most  in- 
teresting pages.  The  soap-root,  Chlorogalum  pomeridia mini,  Kunth., 
is  one  of  the  earliest  plants  to  respond  to  the  autumn  rains,  as  noted 
in  Chapter  V.  This  plant  is  very  widely  distributed,  and  it  is  easily 
studied,  since  its  flowers  expand  nearly  on  time  when  the  clusters  are 
kept  in  water  indoors. 

The  larkspur,  Delphinium,  belongs  to  the  family  Ranunculaceae. 
The  species  are  many  and  are  difficult  to  identify,  especially  the  blue 
ones.  The  one  in  the  illustration  is  D.  Parryi,  Gray,  common  on 
hillsides  in  the  vicinity  of  I^os  Angeles;  there  are  also  earlier  species, 
and  in  the  mountains  in  summer  there  are  blue  larkspurs  with  ex- 
ceedingly tall,  handsome  clusters.  The  scarlet  larkspur  of  the  south, 
D.  cardinalis,  Hook.,  is  larger  and  handsomer  than  the  north- 
ern, D.  nudicaule;  it  is  a  magnificent  plant,  takes  kindly  to  cultiva- 
tion, and  deserves  more  recognition  than  it  has  received.  Only 
larger  bees,  the  carpenter  and  the  bumble-bee,  seem  able  to  get  the 
honey  from  the  blue  larkspurs  that  I  have  observed.  It  will  be  noted 
that  larkspurs  use  exactly  the  same  device  as  the  cultivated  nastur- 
tium in  holding  their  anthers  before  the  entrance  to  the  honey  during 
their  dehiscence,  afterwards  replacing  them  with  matured  stigmas. 
Individual  flowers  last  from  a  week  to  ten  days,  and  the  clusters  are 
of  very  long  duration. 

The  milkweed  of  the  illustration  is  Asclepias  eriocarpa,  Benth  , 
very  common  in  June  in  sandy  wastes  in  the  south.  A.  Mexicana, 
Cav.,  a  more  slender  plant  with  smooth  leaves  and  smaller  flowers,  is 
common  throughout  the  state;  several  other  milkweeds  are  likely  to 
be  encountered,  but  their  story  of  pollination  is  substantially  the 
same.  Within  the  honey  sacs  are  horn-like  appendages  that  are 
prominent  in  some  species,  and  probably  help  to  keep  the  parts  of 

H6 


CHAPTER    XV 

the  flower  in  place  despite  the  struggles  of  entrapped  guests.  I  have 
always  found  it  easy  to  capture  bees  on  the  flowers,  and  have  never 
failed  to  find  traces  of  pollen  masses  on  their  legs;  very  often  only  the 
little  discs  remain,  the  pollinia  having  been  severed. 

The  cactus  is  a  type  of  plants  that,  without  dying  down  to  the 
ground,  can  adapt  themselves  to  a  long  dry  season.  Mexico  and  the 
arid  regions  of  America  generally,  have  the  greater  part  of  all  the 
known  species  of  cactus,  but  South  Africa  has  many  similar  plants 
belonging  to  the  genera  Ficoidese,  Crassulaceae,  Portulacaceae  and  the 
like.  Plants  of  this  type  are  found  also  on  the  faces  of  rocks  where 
there  is  very  little  soil,  and  on  sea  sands  where  evaporation  is  rapid. 
In  order  to  present  the  least  possible  evaporating  surface,  in  all  these 
plants  cylindrical  or  spherical  forms  are  approached.  In  the  cacti  it 
is  the  stems  that  assume  these  forms,  but  in  century  plants,  the  Cras- 
sulaceae (live-for-ever,  hen  and  chickens,  and  the  like),  ice  plants, 
&c.,  it  is  the  leaves.  These  plants  must  always  have  an  epidermis 
that  restricts  evaporation,  either  a  very  thick  one,  as  in  the  cactus, 
or  one  with  a  waxen  or  silicious  coating.  They  have  also  what  is 
termed  aqueous  tissue,  i.  e.,  tissue  that  stores  water.  In  the  cactus, 
this  tissue  is  in  the  interior,  its  cells  and  their  contents  being  trans- 
parent; in  many  of  the  plants,  the  aqueous  tissue  is  visible  beneath 
the  epidermis  as  transparent  lines  or  dots.  The  ice  plant,  Mesembry- 
anthemum,  common  on  our  beaches  and  also  cultivated  in  gardens, 
has  water  stored  in  crystalline  vesicles  that  thickly  cover  stem  and 
leaves;  it  is  not  fully  understood  why  in  this  last  case  the  water  in 
the  delicate- walled  vesicles  does  not  evaporate  easily;  it  is  probably 
because  of  dissolved  salts  in  the  cells  and  the  nature  of  the  cell  walls. 
Where  these  plants  are  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  animals,  silicious 
coats  or  dissolved  mineral  salts  sometimes  serve  defensive  purposes, 
but  the  cactus,  like  the  yucca  and  century  plant,  has  savage  weapons. 
Our  common  tuna  cactus,  Opuntia  Lindheimeri,  var.  occidentalis, 
has  not  only  the  long  spines,  which  are  modified  leaves,  but  also  at 
the  bases  of  the  spines  numbers  of  maddening,  little,  barbed  bristles; 
one  of  these  bristles  under  the  microscope  is  represented  in  Fig.  16. 
It  is  not  unusual  for  one  cactus  to  have  three  kinds  of  weapons. 

For  a  few  weeks  in  spring  time,  the  tuna  cactus  has  true  leaves, 
like  little  fleshy  horns,  but  most  cacti  have  only  the  spines.  Frag- 
ments of  the  tuna  take  root  very  readily ;  they  are  easily  detached 
from  the  parent  plant,  and  the  spines  must  aid  in  their  distribution. 
Probably  there  are  few  seedlings.  The  flowers  of  the  tuna  open  but 
once,  and  then  for  a  few  hours  only,  but  they  are  thronged  with  bees 
that  jostle  one  another  in  their  eagerness  for  pollen;  the  bees  usually, 

117 


SUPPLEMENT 

though  not  always,  strike  the  prominent  stigmas  on  entering,  and 
while  the  stigma  stands  sometimes  above  the  anthers  when  the 
flower  is  expanded,  it  is  probably  self  pollinated  as  the  flower  closes. 
I  have  seen  the  stamens  resume  their  vertical  position  in  from  eight 
to  twelve  minutes,  but  they  have  rarely  opportunity  to  do  this  on  ac- 
count of  the  frequency  of  guests.  The  rarer,  but  more  showy,  ma- 
genta cactus,  Opuntia  basil arut  Kngl.,  has  more  active  stamens,  and 
a  stigma  that  is  always  quite  above  them.  The  smaller  greenish  flow- 
ers of  Cereus  Emory 'i,  Englm.,  are  so  narrow  that  a  large  bee  must 
cling  to  the  ample  stigma  in  order  to  collect  the  pollen,  and  so  he  is 
sure  to  effect  cross  pollination. 

Collections  of  cacti  are  so  common  in  Southern  California  that 
many  other  interesting  features  may  be  observed.  The  night-bloom- 
ing Cereus  climbs  by  branching  rootlets;  the  expansion  of  its  great 
exquisite  flowers  is  a  process  well  worth  watching.  Two  species  of 
Mesembryanthemum  are  common  on  our  beaches.  Two  genera  of  the 
Crassulaceae,  Sedum  and  Cotyledon,  are  rather  widely  distributed  in 
rocky  places;  the  species  are  difficult  to  determine.  The  chamisal, 
Adenostoma  fasciculatum,  H.  &  A.,  has  its  short,  spine-like  leaves  in 
fascicles  or  clusters.  Like  most  Rosaceae,  it  provides  honey,  and  is  much 
cross  pollinated  by  bees  although  its  flowers  seem  quite  capable  of 
self  pollination. 

The  Eriogonums  have  already  received  considerable  attention  in 
Chapters  III  and  XIV.  Their  pollination  is  interesting;  the  follow- 
ing is  true  of  E.  fasciculatum  and  of  several  other  species  with  large 
flower  clusters.  The  perianth  consists  of  six  sepals;  the  nine  stamens 
erect  themselves,  a  few  at  a  time,  holding  their  anthers,  which  are  of 
contrasting  color,  upward  during  dehiscence;  after  the  anthers  have 
all  shed  their  pollen  and  fallen  off,  the  three  styles,  which  have  been 
tightly  curled  down  in  the  centre,  straighten  and  hold  their  stigmas 
in  the  same  position  before  occupied  by  the  anthers.  The  perianths 
do  not  fall  after  the  pollination  of  the  flowers,  but  change  to  a  con- 
trasting color,  those  of  the  white  species  to  pink,  the  yellow  ones  to 
red,  and  so  add  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  cluster.  The  amount  of 
honey  secreted  is  sufficient  to  attract  throngs  of  bees  of  all  sizes,  al- 
though they  must  share  it  with  all  sorts  of  small  insects. 

The  dodder,  Cuscuta,  is  parasitic  on  many  of  our  native  plants; 
there  are  several  species,  difficult  to  determine.  The  little  flowers 
are  somewhat  fragrant  and  have  considerable  honey;  at  first  their  an- 
thers are  held  away  from  the  stigmas,  but  later  on  the  stamens  bend 
to  the  centre,  and  apply  their  pollen  to  the  stigmas. 

Pentstemon    cordifolius,   Benth.,     the   Pentstemon     with   cordate 

118 


CHAPTER    XV 

(heart-shaped)  leaves,  is  common  in  the  south,  and  is  well  worth 
watching,  from  the  time  it  sends  out  new  shoots  after  the  first  rains, 
as  noted  at  length  in  the  Supplement  to  Chapter  V,  until  it  unfolds  its 
brilliant  flowers  in  early  summer.  It  is  an  excellent  example  of 
weaving  plants,  that  is  of  plants  that  clamber  up  through  more 
woody  underbrush  ;  the  different  disposition  of  the  flowers  as  well  as 
of  the  leaves  on  the  branches,  which  are  sometimes  vertical,  sometimes 
horizontal,  looped  or  pendent,  are  interesting  subjects  for  out  of  door 
study.  The  pollination  of  this  and  other  scarlet  Pentstemons  men- 
tioned later  on  among  mountain  flowers,  is,  on  the  whole,  similar  to 
that  of  the  scarlet  Pentstemon  noted  in  Chapter  XI,  but  in  the  details 
there  are  interesting  differences  that  can  be  easily  discerned  in  field 
work.  The  anthers  and  stigmas  of  Pentstemons  always  lie  against 
the  upper  lip,  or  roof,  of  the  flower  and  in  most  scarlet  species  well  out 
to  the  tip,  where  they  are  sure  to  be  struck  by  the  bird's  bill  or  head 
as  he  enters  ;  by  a  downward  curve  of  the  style,  the  stigma  is  so  placed 
that  it  is  struck  first. 

There  are  several  species  of  large,  rose,  violet  or  purple-hued 
Godetias  that  bloom  in  May  and  June,  the  most  common  species  in 
the  vicinity  of  L/os  Angeles  being  G.  Bottcs,  Spach.,  the  one  of  the 
illustration.  Little  tufts  of  hairs  near  the  base  of  the  petals  form  a 
ring  about  the  style,  and  exclude  the  less  desirable  guests.  Dehis- 
cence  of  pollen  goes  on  very  slowly,  and  the  four-lobed  stigma  does 
not  unfold  and  expose  the  stigmatic  surface  until  the  pollen  is  nearly 
or  quite  shed.  In  newly  opened  flowers,  the  style  keeps  the  closed 
stigma  out  of  the  way,  sometimes  quite  outside  the  corolla,  but  by 
executing  an  elaborate  movement  it  finally  places  the  exposed  stigma 
in  the  way  of  entering  guests.  Clarkia  elegans,  Lindl.,  of  the  same 
illlustratidn,  is  rather  local  in  the  south,  but  is  more  abundant  and 
attains  greater  size  in  the  north. 

The  Indian  pink  illustrated  in  the  Reader,  is  Silene  ladniata,  Cav. ; 
it  is  said  to  be  less  handsome  than  its  northern  cousin  6*.  Calif ornica, 
but  it  is  a  brilliant  posy,  and  is  sought  out  by  hummingbirds,  although 
the  plants  do  not  grow  in  masses.  As  in  the  Pentstemon,  anthers  and 
stigmas,  when  mature,  are  above  the  entrance  to  the  honey,  and  situ- 
ated where  they  will  strike  the  bird's  head.  The  stamens  spread  out 
fan-like,  a  few  anthers  dehiscing  at  a  time  ;  finally,  the  styles  lengthen 
and  put  the  stigmas  in  the  place  of  the  now  fallen  anthers.  The  wild 
fuchsia,  Zauschneria  Californica,  is  another  example  of  a  choripet- 
alous  flower  made  exclusive  by  united  sepals.  The  pollination  of 
this  flower  has  been  already  described  in  the  Supplement  to 
Chapter  III. 

119 


SUPPLEMENT 

Many  summer  plants  in  the  valleys  are,  as  noted  in  the  Reader, 
Compositse,  and  have  been  considered  in  Chapter  XII  and  its  Supple- 
ment. The  Trichostema  (blue-curls),  and  Eremocarpus  (turkey-weed) 
were  treated  at  length  in  Chapter  III  and  Supplement.  These  plants 
can,  of  course,  depend  upon  much  insect  attention  ;  even  the  incon- 
spicuous flowers  of  the  Eremocarpus  and  other  Euphorbiaceae  are 
much  visited  by  bees. 

It  is  difficult  to  dismiss  the  subject  of  mountain  flowers  with  a  few 
sentences.  All  through  our  California  mountains  at  an  altitude  of 
from  five  to  eight  thousand  feet,  are  green  meadows  or  pine  groves 
traversed  by  mountain  streams,  spots  ideal  in  scenery  and  climate, 
and  yet  unspoiled  by  civilization,  where  those  who  enjoy  a  natural 
life  can,  at  little  expense,  pass  a  delightful  summer.  There  are  parents 
who  appreciate  this,  and  fortunate  children  who  will  enjoy  all  the 
more  their  weeks  of  liberty  if  they  have  seeing  eyes  for  living  things. 
There  are  teachers,  too,  who,  even  in  this  high  pressure  age  of  sum- 
mer schools,  institutes,  seminaries,  and  pedagogical  literature,  believe 
that  a  few  weeks  spent  with  nature  in  searching  out  her  lessons  at 
first  hand,  is  better  preparation  for  another  year's  work  than  continu- 
ous inpourings  of  pedagogical  lore. 

A  complete  summary  of  mountain  plants  is  really  not  necessary. 
One  must  turn  back  the  leaves  of  the  calendar  in  climbing  mountains, 
and  expect,  at  an  altitude  of  seven  thousand  feet,  to  find  early  violets 
and  buttercups  in  June.  The  species  will  be  unfamiliar  and  it  may 
not  be  possible  to  learn  the  full  name  without  consulting  some 
botanist  who  has  made  a  special  study  of  the  neighborhood,  but  any 
one  interested  in  the  habits  of  plants  and  their  adaptation  to  their 
environment,  will  take  keen  pleasure  in  comparing  the  mountain 
species  with  familiar  valley  species  of  the  same  genus.  Generally, 
too,  the  plants  grow  in  such  masses  that  there  is  the  best  of  opportu- 
nities for  watching  their  relations  to  their  guests.  Then  there  is  the 
zest  of  finding  plants  of  new  families  ;  early  in  the  season  Saxifrages, 
with  their  delicate  flower  clusters  and  beautiful  leaves,  also  the  tall, 
blue  iris,  or  flag;  later,  rhododendrons  and  gentians,  and  perhaps 
orchids  and  cardinal  flowers;  in  the  pine  woods,  not  only  the  snow 
plant,  Barcodes  sanguined t  Torr.,  but  other  saprophytic  Ericaceae,  the 
pine  drops,  Plerospora  andromedea,  Nutt.,  for  instance,  with  its  tall, 
uncanny  spikes  of  flesh-colored  flowers,  and  the  pretty  Pyrolas, 
which  are  only  partially  saprophytic.  There  are  plants  whose  flower 
clusters  actually  melt  their  way  through  the  snow  ;  the  Soldanella  of 
the  Alps  does  this,  but  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  our  snow  plant  has  not  this 
habit.  It  is  possible  that  red  flowers  are  not  so  marked  a  feature  of 

120 


CHAPTER   XV 

the  mountain  flora  in  the  north,  but  in  the  San  Bernardino  moun- 
tains there  are  literally  acres  of  Pentstemon  and  Castilleia  at  altitudes 
of  seven  or  eight  thousand  feet,  and  scattered  scarlet  flowers  every- 
where. For  two  months  in  the  mountains,  I  daily  watched  humming 
birds  visiting  flowers  from  dawn  to  twilight,  and  I  never  once  saw 
them  visit  any  but  scarlet  flowers.  In  the  valleys,  they  frequently 
avail  themselves  of  the  hospitality  of  flowers  of  other  colors,  but 
where  there  is  a  great  abundance  of  flowers  of  all  colors,  their  behav- 
ior leaves  one  in  little  doubt  as  to  their  color  preference. 

The  methods  of  climbing  plants  are  full  of  interest,  and  form  the 
subject  of  considerable  botanical  literature  ;  they  can  be  easily  studied 
in  the  home  garden  during  the  summer  vacation.  Four  different 
types  have  already  been  noted  among  native  plants  ;  the  Pentstemon 
cordifolius,  the  blackberry  and  the  Nemophila  aurita,  climb  by  weav- 
ing or  looping  themselves  over  underbrush  ;  the  morning-glory  and 
dodder  climb  by  means  of  their  twining  stems,  the  chilicothe  and 
grape,  by  tendrils,  and  the  poison  oak  by  rootlets.  Encourage  the 
children  to  find  further  illustrations  of  these  types  among  cultivated 
plants.  The  climbing  roses  weave  their  way  up  on  lattices,  just  as 
the  Nemophila  or  the  blackberry  clambers  over  bushes,  the  prickles 
always  assisting  in  the  process.  The  best  way  to  study  twining  plants 
is  to  watch  morning-glory  seedlings  when  the  upper  portion  of  the 
young  shoot  begins  its  sweeping  motion,  before  it  has  found  a  support. 
In  this  way  it  will  be  seen  that  there  actually  is  motion,  not  merely 
growth,  around  the  support.  This  motion  is  called  circum nutation  ; 
it  is  not  twisting,  but  the  stem  bends  successively  to  all  points  of  the 
compass.  The  books  explain  that  circumnutation  is  due  to  a  line  of 
turgescence,  that  is,  of  much  distended  cells,  which  by  moving  about 
the  stem,  causes  it  to  bend  always  in  the  opposite  direction  ;  but  what 
impels  the  protoplasm  that  controls  the  turgescence  cannot  be 
explained.  A  very  vigorous  morning-glory  stem  upon  a  warm  day 
completes  a  revolution  in  two  or  three  hours,  so  the  motion  may  be 
easily  perceived.  Twining  plants  need  slender  supports,  and  in  tem- 
perate climates  it  is  usually  only  annuals  that  choose  this  method  of 
getting  up  in  the  world  quickly.  When  a  perennial  twines  about  a 
perennial  stem  either  one  or  the  other  must  be  ultimately  destroyed, 
since  as  the  supporting  stem  increases  in  circumference,  either  it  must 
be  strangled,  or  the  twining  stem  ruptured.  Let  children  observe 
whether  the  direction  of  the  twining  is  clockwise  or  the  reverse.  I 
know  but  one  plant,  the  so-called  smilax,  that  twines  sometimes  in 
one,  sometimes  in  the  other  way.  The  best  device  of  all  for  climbing 
is  by  means  of  tendrils,  and  here  again  there  is  much  diversity  of 

121 


SUPPLEMENT 

method.  The  tendril  may  simply  form  a  loop  or  ring  about  the  sup- 
port, like  the  nasturtium;  or  it  may  circumnutate  and  coil  after  grasp- 
ing the  support,  like  the  passion  vine  ;  or  it  may  turn  away  from  the 
light  in  seeking  attachment,  like  the  Virginia  creeper  and  other 
plants  accustomed  to  climb  up  walls,  rocks,  or  tree  trunks.  In  the 
nasturtium  it  is  the  leaf  or  flower  stem  that  acts  as  a  tendril ;  in  the 
pea,  modified  leaflets  ;  in  the  grape,  chilicothe  and  many  others, 
modified  branches  ;  and  so  on.  Let  children  find  out  for  themselves 
the  habits  of  the  tendrils  of  the  sweet  pea,  grape,  passion  flower, 
chilicothe,  pumpkin,  &c.  At  first  the  tendrils  are  long  and  straight ; 
if  they  must  push  their  way  through  under-brush,  they  do  this 
after  the  manner  of  weaving  plants,  keeping  compactly  together  ; 
once  free  to  seek  a  support,  they  circumnutate  until  a  free  tip,  often 
hooked,  catches  some  object ;  at  once  the  tendril  coils,  and  perhaps 
by  this  means  brings  its  neighbors,  also,  to  some  support ;  tendrils 
not  reaching  an  object,  coil  and  usually  shrivel  and  drop.  The  coiling 
of  the  tendrils  not  only  brings  the  plant  nearer  to  its  support,  but  on 
account  of  the  resulting  elasticity,  renders  it  less  likely  to  be  torn 
away  by  storms.  Light-avoiding  tendrils  are  sometimes  provided 
with  little  discs  ;  more  often  the  tendril  insinuates  itself  into  some 
minute  crevice  or  hollow,  and  then  its  tip  develops  a  disc-like  attach- 
ment that  moulds  itself  into  the  crevice  like  wax,  completely  filling 
it.  The  Bnglish  ivy,  so  common  in  cultivation,  climbs  by  aerial 
rootlets.  Let  the  children  find  out  whether  these  rootlets  come  only 
at  joints  or  all  along  the  stem,  and  whether  on  the  side  toward,  or  away 
from,  the  light.  Do  these  roots  feed  the  plant  also,  as  do  the  suckers 
of  the  dodder  ?  Let  them  find  this  out  by  cutting  the  twining  stem 
so  that  it  has  no  connection  with  the  soil.  As  noted  before,  the 
leaves  of  climbing  plants  spread  themselves  out  fully  to  the  light, 
often  forming  beautiful  mosaics. 

Beach  plants  have  the  same  devices  and  the  same  general  appear- 
ance as  desert  plants  and  those  active  during  the  dry  season.  This 
has  been  set  forth  at  length  in  Chapter  III.  Some  individual  beach 
plants  have  also  been  noted,  the  sand  primrose  in  Chapter  IX  ;  the 
beach  lupine  in  Chapter  X  ;  sand  verbenas  in  Chapter  XIV  ;  and 
succulent  beach  plants  in  this  Chapter. 


122 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


WEEDS. 

The  great  extent  of  foreign  plant  immigration  is  perhaps  sufficiently 
emphasized  in  the  Reader.  To  begin  at  once,  then,  with  the  individual 
weeds  : — The  malva,  bur-clover,  and  filaree  have  already  been  much 
considered  in  the  Reader.  The  fox-tail  grass,  Hordeum  murinum, 
Linn.,  is  surely  familiar  to  all  Californians.  Both  its  awns,  and  its 
inner  floral  envelopes,  which  are  sharp  pointed  at  the  base,  are  pro- 
vided with  bristles,  rendering  the  plant  an  almost  universal  pest. 
Prof.  Hilgard  of  the  State  University,  in  his  report  for  the  year  1890, 
is  my  authority  for  the  statement  that  the  soft  brome  grass,  Bromus 
mollis,  Linn.,  is  likely  to  aid  in  the  extirpation  of  the  fox-tail  grass; 
this  brome  grass  is  not  yet  abundant  in  the  south.  The  wild  oat, 
Avenafatua,  Linn.,  is  valued  for  hay,  although  its  awns  sometimes 
do  mischief  to  cattle  and  horses.  An  extremely  pretty  foreign  grass, 
Achyrodes  (Lamarckia)  aureum,  O.  Ktze.,  with  fluffy,  plume-like 
spikes  of  minute  flowers,  is  becoming  very  common  in  the  south.  It 
seems  unfair  to  include  this  pretty  grass  among  weeds,  but  it  prob- 
ably has  little  value  for  pasturage,  and  it  is  well  provided  with  means 
of  dispersal.  It  is  doubtless  true  that  the  Bermuda  grass  will  never 
be  troublesome  on  land  not  irrigated,  but  it  ruins  many  a  lawn.  The 
chess,  though  frequently  imported  with  grain  seed,  does  not  succeed 
in  California,  but  the  darnel,  a  species  of  Lolium,  is  troublesome  in 
some  parts  of  the  state.  The  alkali  grass,  Distichlis  maritima,  Raf., 
is  not  easily  exterminated  from  moist  alkali  soil. 

The  extermination  of  black  mustard,  probably  introduced  as  a  con- 
diment, is  the  most  serious  weed  problem  of  the  south.  Such  is  the 
vitality  of  its  multitudinous  seeds,  that  mowing  the  flower  stalks  for 
a  single  season  seems  to  have  but  little  permanent  effect.  The  seeds 
are  utilized  commercially  to  some  extent.  The  radish,  Raphanus 
sativusy  Linn.,  is  a  rather  common  weed,  but  is  not  generally  per- 
sistent. 

123 


SUPPLEMENT 

The  yellow  melilot,  Melilotus  Indica^  All.,  with  fragrant  clover-like 
leaves,  and  slender  spikes  of  minute  yellow  flowers,  is  very  common 
in  the  south,  but  it  does  not  infest  grain  fields  as  in  the  north. 
Melilotus  alba,  Lam,  ,  the  very  fragrant  melilot  with  white  flowers,  is 
not  yet  common.  The  water  cress,  Nasturtium  officinale,  R.  Br.,  is 
not  an  unmixed  evil.  The  course  of  introduced  weeds  is  usually, 
like  the  star  of  empire,  westward  ;  but  the  pond  weed,  Elodia  Cana- 
densis,  referred  to  in  the  Reader,  is  a  notable  exception.  The  chili- 
cothe,  already  noted  in  Chapter  V,  is  very  troublesome  to  fruit 
growers  in  Antelope  Valley  and  other  reclaimed  regions  of  scanty 
moisture.  A  near  relative  of  the  chilicothe,  Cucurbita  faetidissiuia, 
H  B  K.,  known  as  mock  orange,  Chili-cojote,  or  calabazilla,  fre- 
quently spreads  itself  over  waste  ground  and  neglected  fields  in  the 
south,  and  very  troublesome  it  is  if  it  gains  a  foothold  in  cultivated 
land.  It  has  an  underground  part  of  enormous  extent,  and  its  stems 
with  their  ill  scented  foliage  trail  off  five  OP  six  feet  in  every  direction; 
its  yellow,  gourd-like  fruits  are  exceedingly  numerous,  and  the  seeds 
are  well  protected  by  the  hard  rind  of  the  gourd. 

Poison  oak  persists  for  some  time  in  newly  cleared  land,  new  shoots 
springing  up  from  fragments  of  its  sturdy  rootstocks.  For  the  same 
reason,  bracken  is  difficult  to  eradicate  from  its  former  habitat,  and 
several  years  are  necessary  to  free  moist  alkali  soil  from  such  plants 
as  the  yerba  mansa  (Chapter  XIV),  wild  heliotrope  (Chapter  IX), 
wild  celery  and  other  swamp-loving  Umbelliferae.  It  is  natural  that 
plants  with  underground  parts  that  enable  them  to  stand  repeated 
croppings,  should  survive  in  pasture  lands  that  are  little  cultivated. 
The  sanicles  and  other  Umbelliferae  mentioned  in  the  Supplement  to 
Chapter  XII,  are  examples  of  this,  also  the  pretty  blue-eyed  grass, 
Sisyrinchium  bellum,  Fig.  61.  The  numerous  little  corms  given  off 
each  season  by  Brodicea  capitata  (Chapter  VII)  render  it  quite 
persistent,  though  not  troublesome,  in  grain  fields.  In  sandy  soils 
Lupinus  formosus  develops  very  long  roots  that  are  difficult 
to  exterminate.  The  potency  of  the  morning-glory  as  a  weed  also 
resides  in  its  underground  part,  and  in  this  case  the  outcome  of 
the  struggle  between  the  weed  and  the  agriculturists  is  by  no  means 
certain.  In  the  south  it  is  the  foreign  morning-glory,  Convolvulus 
arvensis,  Linn.,  that  sometimes  drives  the  farmer  from  the  field,  but 
Prof.  Hilgard  states  that  in  the  bay  region  it  is  the  native  C.  Calif  or- 
nicus  that  remains  in  possession  of  abandoned  orchards.  The  pre- 
eminence of  Amsinckia  and  Eschscholtzia  among  native  weeds  is 
certainly  due  to  their  ability  to  erdure  drought,  and  it  is  in  the 
regions  where  rainfall  is  particularly  uncertain  that  these  two  weeds 

124 


CHAPTER   XVI 

flourish.  When  several  dry  years  come  in  succession,  it  is  interesting 
to  watch  the  struggle  for  supremacy  between  the  two  weeds;  for  a 
time  the  Ainsinckia,whose  qualifications  are  set  forth  in  the  Supple- 
ment to  Chapter  IX,  take  the  lead,  but  ultimately  the  perennial  plant 
crowds  the  annual  to  the  wall. 

Of  the  minor  annual  weeds  of  winter  and  spring  time,  Orthocarpus 
purpurascens,  illustrated  in  Fig.  54,  the  well  known  tidy-tips,  and 
Phacelia  tanacetifolia,  Fig.  45,  and  its  near  kin,  are  simply  vigorous 
natives  that  do  not  at  once  succumb  to  cultivation.  The  two  former 
are  mildly  troublesome  in  grain  fields,  the  last  is  common  along  way- 
sides and  in  waste  places  generally.  The  Calandrinias,  Chapter  IX, 
Supplement,  are  short-lived,  but  their  fleshy  leaves  and  numerous 
seeds  are  elements  of  strength.  Our  native  nettles  flourish  all  the 
year  if  left  in  their  chosen  habitats.  The  dodder  is  sometimes  very 
troublesome  in  alfalfa  fields,  Tropidocarpum  gracile,  Hook.,  is  a 
yellow  flowered  Crucifer  rather  persistent  in  irrigated  loamy  soils, 
especially  in  the  desert.  Another  Crucifer,  the  shepherd's-purse 
(Chapter  IX),  makes  itself  at  home  in  California  as  everywhere  else 
in  the  world,  but  can  hardly  be  termed  troublesome.  Of  introduced 
weeds  of  the  pink  family,  Silene  gallica,  Linn.,  is  very  prolific  in 
some  warm  sandy  soils;  it  is  nearly  as  viscid  as  its  cousin  ,5*.  laciniata 
of  Chapter  XV,  and  has  short,  one-sided  clusters  of  white  or  pinkish 
flowers  of  medium  size;  the  spurry,  Spergula  arvensis,  requires  more 
moisture,  and  is  even  more  local;  the  chickweed,  Stellaria  media,  as 
noted  in  Chapter  IX,  is  widely  distributed  and  persists  the  year 
round.  The  pimpernel,  noted  in  Chapter  XIV,  Supplement,  is  an- 
other not  very  offensive  weed  that  blooms  and  fruits  the  year  round. 

Many  of  the  summer  and  autumn  weeds  have  been  already  con- 
sidered; the  milkweed,  Asclepias,  in  the  previous  chapter  ;  Tricho- 
stema  and  Bremocarpus,in  Chapter  V  and  elsewhere  ;  and,  in  the  Sup- 
plement to  Chapter  XII,  the  various  weeds  belonging  to  the  Com- 
positae, — the  sunflower,  tar- wetds,  ragweeds  (Ambrosia),  fleabane 
(Erigeron),  Mayweed  (Anthetnis  cotula),  cockle-bur  (Xanthium), 
sow-thistle  (Sonchus),  and  Spanish-needle  (Bidens.)  The  sow-thistle 
is  illustrated  in  the  Reader  ;  the  cockle-bur  and  Spanish-needle,  like 
the  hoarhound,  are  too  notorious  to  need  illustration  ;  the  Mayweed 
seems  to  be  rapidly  gaining  ground  in  the  north;  in  the  south  a 
nearly  related  native  plant,  Matricaria  discoidea,  DC.,  is  more  aggres- 
sive, but  neither  is  yet  troublesome.  The  yellow  star  thistle,  Ctn- 
taurea  melitensis,  Linn.,  is  a  pest  that  perhaps  ranks  next  to  mustard 
and  wild  barley  in  the  north,  but  in  the  south  it  is  limited  to  pasture 
lands.  The  two  species  of  Euphorbia,  E.  albomarginata  and  E. 

125 


SUPPLEMENT 

polycarpa,  known  as  rattlesnake  weed,  and  described  in  Chapter  XIV, 
have  some  very  weedy  habits,  although  on  the  whole  they  are  more 
attractive  than  troublesome;  they  are  supposed  to  provide  a  remedy 
for  rattlesnake  bites.  The  Euphorbia  that  is  by  some  believed  to  be 
poisonous  to  gophers,  is  E.  Lathyrus,  Linn.,  an  escape  from  cultiva- 
tion. The  skunkweed  is  Gilia  squarrosa,  H.  &  A.,  more  common 
northward;  Portulaca  oleracea,  the  purslane,  so  troublesome  in  our 
Eastern  States,  is  only  occasional  in  California,  although  it  seeks  to 
adapt  itself  to  the  dry  season  by  reducing  its  fleshy  leaves  to  cylinders. 
Many  of  our  most  familiar  weeds  belong  to  the  nearly  related  families, 
Polygonaceae,  Amarantacese,  and  Chenopodiaceae.  The  most  com- 
mon species  of  Chenopodium  are  foreigners,  and  are  known  as  pig- 
weed or  goosefoot ;  the  one  in  the  illustration  is  C.  Album,  Linn. 
Atriplex  is  another  genus  of  Chenopodiaceae,  and  A.bracteosa,  Wats., 
is  a  common  tumble-weed  along  Los  Angeles  streets.  The  very  com- 
mon tumble-weeds  of  cultivated  lands  however,  are  species  of  Ama- 
ranthus  ;  they  are  too  familiar  to  need  description.  Tumble-weeds  are 
generally  supposed  to  scatter  their  seeds  as  they  are  rolled  about  by 
the  wind,  but  in  this  section  the  seeds  fall  before  the  plants  begin  to 
roll;  and,  like  most  of  this  group,  they  may  well  trust  the  dispersal 
of  their  minute  and  very  numerous  seeds  to  the  wind.  The  doves  eat 
great  quantities  of  these  seeds,  and  may  aid  in  distributing  them. 
Rumex,  the  dock,  and  Polygonum  the  knotweed,  are  genera  belong- 
ing to  the  same  family  as  the  Eriogonum  ;  fragments  of  these  plants 
are  illustrated  in  the  Reader.  The  Polygonum  aviculare,  Linn.,  of 
the  picture,  spreads  out  in  flat  circular  mats  two  or  three  feet  in 
diameter,  attaining  in  summer,  on  our  hard,  baked  adobe  soil,  a  much 
greater  size  than  in  the  Eastern  States.  Its  slender,  woody  stems  are 
green,  and  must  perform  much  of  the  vegetative  work  ;  it  is  said  that 
cattle  will  eat  it  when  hard  pressed.  All  these  plants  have  small  and 
inconspicuous  flowers,  and  at  first  glance  one  would  pronounce  them 
self  pollinated,  as  most  of  them  doubtless  are  ;  but  the  flowers  are 
exceedingly  numerous,  and  the  wind  probably  aids  considerably  in 
their  pollination  ;  in  fact,  on  closer  examination,  one  finds  that  several 
species  are  quite  incapable  of  self  pollination,  either  because  they  are 
unisexual  or  because  they  mature  their  stamens  only  after  their  own 
stigmas  are  past  the  receptive  stage.  As  stated  in  Chapter  III,  it  is 
not  easy  to  explain  fully  the  success  of  these  ubiquitous  weeds,  which 
thrive  in  the  most  unpromising  places.  They  seem  to  have  inherited 
virility  from  their  ancestors,  which,  for  centuries,  and  in  many 
countries,  have  been  conquering  weeds. 
There  are  in  Southern  California  several  really  ornamental  plants 

126 


CHAPTER   XVI 

which  are  commonly  classed  with  weeds.  The  "Jimson  "  weed  is 
properly  Datura  stramonium,  a  common  weed  in  the  Atlantic  States, 
which  took  its  name  from  the  Jamestown  of  colonial  days.  This  weed 
is  occasionally  seen  in  California,  but  its  common  name  is  applied  to 
our  native  Datura  meteloides,  DC., which  has  the  same  poisonous  and 
narcotic  qualities.  The  native  Datura  is  a  handsome  plant,  despite 
its  rather  ill  repute  and  disagreeable  foliage  ;  its  huge  white  or  violet- 
tinted  flowers  are  produced  in  profusion  from  May  to  November. 
The  fennel,  with  its  exceedingly  delicate  foliage,  grows  so  luxuriantly 
during  the  summer  and  autumn  about  the  towns  of  Southern  Califor- 
nia that  stories  of  fennel  thickets  being  resorts  for  wild  beasts  in  Asia 
Minor  seem  quite  credible.  The  castor-oil  plant,  Ricinus  communis, 
Linn.,  generally  cultivated  in  gardens  and  greenhouses,  grows  spon- 
taneously in  the  south,  frequently  attaining  the  height  of  trees  ;  and 
the  tree-tobacco,  Nicotiana  glauca,  Graham,  becomes  a  graceful  tree 
in  two  or  three  years.  These  two  plants  speedily  transform  unsightly 
vacant  city  lots  of  southern  towns  into  miniature  parks.  Some  pecu- 
liarities of  the  leaves  of  the  Ricinus  were  noted  in  Chapter  III.  The 
flowers  are  unisexual,  the  pistillate  flowers  terminating  the  clusters> 
which  bear  staminate  flowers  lower  down.  The  stamens  are  clustered 
like  bunches  of  grapes,  and  produce  a  great  quantity  of  fine,  dry 
pollen  ;  the  stigmas,  too,  are  characteristic  of  wind-pollinated  flowers, 
being  very  large  and  rough.  Bees  visit  the  plants  for  the  viscid  sub- 
stance contained  in  the  glands  previously  mentioned,  but  they  are  not 
likely  to  play  any  part  in  pollination.  The  seeds  and  their  distribu- 
tion were  considered  in  Chapter  II.  The  tree-tobacco  is  a  recent 
immigrant  from  South  America.  Like  other  species  of  tobacco,  it 
produces  almost  incredibly  numerous  seeds  ;  they  are  held  in  open 
capsules,  and  are  carried  far  and  wide  on  the  winds,  so  that  young 
seedlings  are  seen  springing  up  everywhere,  even  on  perpendicular 
walls  of  clay  and  on  the  ruins  of  old  adobe  structures.  The  trees  are 
in  flower  all  the  year  round,  and  in  even  the  coldest  weather,  hum- 
ming birds  can  count  on  their  hospitality,  for  the  flowers,  although 
yellow  in  color,  are  in  form  and  structure  well  adapted  to  the  birds  ; 
they  are  pendent,  long  and  tubular,  and  are  rendered  still  more  exclu- 
sive by  incurving  stamens;  they  secrete  honey  abundantly,  and  attract 
throngs  of  birds.  If  these  were  native  flowers,  we  should  consider 
the  bearing  of  their  color  and  their  guests  upon  the  theories  of  flower 
coloration,  since  all  our  natives  of  similar  structure  are  scarlet ;  but 
we  should  need  first  to  know  of  the  insect  and  bird  life  in  the  native 
home  of  the  tree  tobacco  ;  so,  like  the  birds,  we  are  content  to  accept 
them  and  enjoy  them  without  question. 

127 


APPENDIX. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR   THE   USE   OF   THE    READER   IN   THE 
SCHOOL  ROOM. 

In  tliis  day  of  laboratories,  the  use  of  a  Botanical  Reader  may  be 
questioned.  The  aims  of  this  book  are  stated  at  length  in  the 
Preface,  and  it  may  be  taken  as  an  apology  for  the  book's  existence, 
if  apology  be  necessary.  The  writer  has  endeavored  to  arrange  the 
book  so  that  it  cannot  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  field  and  obser- 
vation work,  but  only  as  a  stimulus  and  aid.  She  has  found  Califor- 
nia teachers  generally  very  willing  to  undertake  real  nature  study  ; 
but  teachers  who  must  unfold  all  subjects  to  many  children  in  limited 
time,  can  not  be  specialists,  and  need  every  legitimate  aid  in  work  of 
this  kind.  It  is  easy  to  lead  children  to  open  their  eyes  to  natural 
objects  and  to  induce  them  to  bring  specimens  for  school-room  study, 
but  their  expression  of  what  they  see  shows  how  much  their  observa- 
tions need  to  be  interpreted  and  supplemented.  Of  course  the  Reader 
should  not  be  used  until  children  have  found  out  what  they  can  for 
themselves,  and  have  expressed  it  in  their  own  way.  The  order  of 
the  chapters  conforms  to  the  changing  seasons  in  our  climate,  begin- 
ning in  the  autumn,  but  it  would  not  be  wise  to  attempt  the  entire 
book  in  one  year.  The  early  chapters  were  written  for  children  in 
the  fourth  and  fifth  grades,  but  some  of  the  later  chapters  should  not 
be  undertaken  before  the  seventh  or  eighth  grades.  Courses  of  nature 
study  are  usually  made  to  extend  over  the  entire  eight  primary  and 
grammar  grades,  and  this  is  doubtless  best  if  the  work  can  be  suffi- 
ciently varied  to  keep  up  keen  interest.  It  has  been  thought  best  to 
suggest  in  detail  the  adaptation  of  the  Reader  to  a  course  of  plant 
study,  although  the  index  of  plants  and  topics  at  the  end  of  the  book 
renders  it  easily  adaptable  to  any  course.  The  course  selected  is 
similar  to  the  one  now  followed  in  the  L,os  Angeles  City  Schools. 

129 


APPENDIX 

FIRST  GRADE. 

AUTUMN. — Castor-bean,  morning-glory  and  pine  seedlings.  Develop 
the  fact  that  the  seed  is  a  little  plant,  also,  in  a  general  way,  the  use 
of  root,  stem  and  leaves. 

WINTER. — Study,  out  of  doors  if  possible,  pine  tree,  mature 
castor-oil  plant  and  growing  morning-glory,  noting  most  prominent 
features  only.  In  school  room,  note  pollen  and  teach  its  use  ;  study 
pine  cones  and  castor- oil  fruits,  that  is,  seed  protection  and  seed 
distribution. 

SPRING. — Note  morning-glory  flower  and  fruits  and  develop  the 
use  of  the  flower  with  its  color  and  honey. 

The  aim  of  the  work  of  the  first  three  years  should  be  to  teach 
leading  facts  about  entire,  living  plants.  The  ideal  plan  is  to  have  the 
plants  growing  in  school  gardens,  but  the  seedlings  can  be  grown  in 
window  gardens,  tended  by  the  children.  If  there  is  no  pine  tree 
or  castor-oil  plant  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school  building,  some  other 
tree  with  abundance  of  pollen  may  be  substituted,  or  the  study  of  the 
willow — see  work  of  next  grade — may  be  taken  up  instead.  In  work 
with  the  flower  here,  teach  only  that  the  flower  helps  in  seed-making 
by  inducing  insects  (or  birds)  to  carry  pollen.  Have  the  children 
find  honey  and  pollen  in  other  flowers  growing  out  of  doors  near  the 
school  building,  and  let  them  watch  for  the  flowers'  guests.  In  the 
first  three  grades  do  not  dissect  flowers  ;  think  of  them  always  as  liv- 
ing wholes.  For  further  suggestions,  see  index,  under  pine,  castor-oil 
plant,  etc. 

SECOND  GRADE. 

AUTUMN. — Other  dicotyledenous  seedlings  suggested  in  Chapter  II. 
Volunteer  seedlings  from  children's  home  gardens,  such  as  "  nastur- 
tium "  (Tropaeolum),  sweet  pea  and  geranium  (Pelargonium),  trans- 
planted into  school  garden.  Study  of  growth  from  perennial  under- 
ground stems,  children  contributing  to  the  school  garden  calla  root- 
stocks,  Chinese  lily  bulbs,  and,  perhaps,  underground  storehouses  of 
iris,  canna,  hyacinth  and  the  like.  Obtain  if  possible  Mariposa  lily 
bulbs  and  a  California  poppy  growing  from  a  strong  rootstock. 

WINTER. — Watch  growth  from  buds,  from  shoots  kept  in  water 
in  the  school  room  if  out  of  door  observation  is  not  feasible.  Study 
willow  (see  Chapter  VIII).  Also,  if  it  seems  best,  some  of  the  other 
native  trees,  the  sycamore,  cottonwood  or  alder.  Teach  stigma  and 
its  use.  Note  seed  distribution  of  the  trees  under  consideration. 

SPRING. — Using  the  flowers  of  "  nasturtium, "  geranium,  sweet  pea, 
calla,  Chinese  lily,  poppy,  Mariposa  and  iris,  have  the  children  find 

130 


APPENDIX 

pollen,  stigmas  and  honey  if  any.  Note  honey  guides  in  nasturtium, 
some  Pelargoniums  and  iris.  Develop  fact  that  insects  may  seek 
shelter  as  well  as  honey.  Watch  for  the  guests  of  the  flowers  in 
home  or  school  gardens;  they  can  often  be  seen  in  passing  along 
city  streets. 

THIRD  GRADE. 

AUTUMN. — Corn  seedlings,  with  experiments  suggested  in  Chapter 
II,  to  show  uses  of  root-hairs,  root-tips,  and  woody  strands. 

WINTER  AND  SPRING. — Further  study  of  trees.  Select  some 
accessible  nut-bearing  tree,  walnut  is  best,  and  a  tree  with  fleshy 
fruit,  peach,  orange  or  apple  for  instance.  Watch  development  from 
flower  to  fruit  and  study  seed  distribution.  (See  "  nuts  "  and  "  fleshy 
fruits,  "  index.)  Teach  names  of  trees  common  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
school,  and  note  their  most  striking  characteristics^ — deciduous  or 
evergreen,  pollinated  by  wind  or  insects,  method  of  seed  distribution, 
etc.  Collect  and  study  as  many  native  plants  as  possible,  considering 
the  flowers  as  wholes,  as  suggested  in  first  grade  work  ;  also  noting 
seed  distribution.  Talk  of  advantages  of  flowers  in  clusters  and  note 
that  sunflower,  thistle,  tidy-tips,  marguerite  and  the  like,  are  flower 
clusters. 

FiEU)  WORK. — It  should  be  possible  in  this  grade  for  children  to 
take  occasional  excursions  to  hillsides  or  canons,  bringing  their  col- 
lections to  the  schoolroom.  It  would  be  well  to  keep  on  the  black- 
board a  growing  list  of  the  native  plants  the  children  know.  In 
Southern  California  such  a  list  at  the  end  of  the  third  grade  should 
include  a  considerable  number  of  the  following  plants  ; — willow,  wal- 
nut, sycamore,  oak,  cottonwood,  alder,  elder,  poison  oak,  "  scrub  " 
oak,  wild  blackberry,  wild  grape,  wild  lilac,  wild  currant  and  goose- 
berry, California  holly,  some  ferns,  poppy,  shooting  star,  violet, 
lupine,  cluster  lily,  Mariposa  lily,  buttercup,  cream- cup,  mustard, 
painted  cup,  monkey-flower,  blue-eyes,  ground-pink,  nightshade, 
four- o'clock,  tidy-tips,  sunflower  and  thistle.  Encourage  children  to 
make  collections  of  seeds  (or  fruits)  with  floaters,  hooks,  etc. 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

AUTUMN. — Central  idea,  plants  as  food-makers.  Collect  and  study 
Algae,  then  take  up  Chapter  I,  Reader.  Drill  on  new  terms  chloro- 
phyll, oxygen,  carbonic  acid  gas,  protoplasm,  cell.  It  is  believed  that 
the  subject  of  nutrition  is  more  easily  taught  from  lower  plants  and 
that  the  novelty  of  the  material  will  give  zest  to  the  subject.  Read 
also  Chapter  II,  preceding  it  by  a  study  of  any  of  the  seedlings  not 

131 


APPENDIX 

hitherto  considered,  and  emphasizing  the  physiological  part.     Have 
children  grow  mould  on  bread. 

WINTER. — Have  children  collect  and  study  lichens  and  toadstools 
and  read  Chapter  IV. 

SPRING. — Study  of  a  flower  in  detail,  the  peony  if  accessible,  other- 
wise the  buttercup.  Read  first  part  of  Chapter  VII.  Drill  in  point- 
ing out  parts  of  other  flowers  collected. 

FIEXD  WORK. — Continue  third  grade  work,  but  let  pupils  keep 
individual  lists  with  dates,  continuing  to  add  to  them  during  the  sum- 
mer vacation.  Have  common  wayside  plants,  such  as  bur-clover  and 
filaree  included. 

FIFTH  GRADE. 

Main  topic  for  the  year's  work,  climate  and  vegetation. 

AUTUMN.— Have  children  collect  summer  and  autumn  plants,  study 
them  with  experiments,  then  read  Chapter  III.  Emphasize  transpira- 
tion current,  and  the  necessity  for  maintaining  the  balance  between 
water  supply  and  evaporation. 

WINTER  — Chapter  V,  preceded  by  preparatory  work.  Collect  and 
study  ferns  ;  read  Chapter  VI. 

SPRING. — Study  fig  and  other  common  trees  of  the  vicinity  not 
previously  taken  up.  Read  Chapter  VIII.  Observation  work  with 
grasses,  wild  oats  as  a  type  ;  also  with  palms,  calla,  canna  and  banana. 
Correlate  this  work  closely  with  Geography.  With  the  chapter  on 
trees,  talk  of  trees  of  different  climates  ;  let  grasses  suggest  grains, 
sugar  cane  and  bamboo  ;  the  fig,  India  rubber  ;  the  canna,  the  tropi- 
cal aroids,  and  so  on.  Dwell  on  the  palms  of  economic  importance 
and  teach  something  of  the  plants  that  yield  cotton,  tea,  coffee,  spices, 
tapioca  and  the  like.  Consult  the  Supplement  to  Chapters  XIII  and 
XIV  using  index.  If  only  local  geography  is  taught  in  this  grade, 
defer  this  work  and  take  that  suggested  in  the  next  grade. 

FIELD  WORK. — Continue  the  collecting  and  the  lists  with  dates, 
adding  to  the  lists  and  comparing  dates  with  dates  of  previous  years. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 

Review  of  plant  physiology  and  more  detailed  study  of  pollination 
of  flowers. 

AUTUMN. — Review  physiological  parts  of  Chapters  I,  II,  III, 
and  V. 

WINTER  AND  SPRING. — Study  pollination  of  some  of  the  follow- 
ing flowers  ; — four-o'clock,  poppy,  shooting  star,  violet,  cluster  lily, 
Mariposa  lily,  nemophilas,  Gilias,  nightshade,  lupine,  Mimulus, 
Collinsia,  painted  cup,  owl's  clover,  Pentstemon,  larkspur,  cactus, 

132 


APPENDIX 

wild  fuchsia  and  blue- curls.  Have  children  notice  the  relative 
positions  of  stigmas  and  anthers  and  their  time  of  maturity ; 
also  any  special  devices  for  excluding,  undesirable  guests,  or 
protecting  pollen  or  honey,  or  for  securing  self  pollination. 
Read  all  of  Chapter  VII  and  parts  of  Chapters  IX,  X,  XI  and  XV. 

FIELD  WORK. — Watch  insects  on  the  above  flowers.  Have 
children  note  the  most  common  weeds,  continuing  observations 
during  summer. 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

AUTUMN. — Compare  notes  on  weeds  and  read  Chapter  XVI. 

WINTER  AND  SPRING. — Pollination  of  as  many  of  the  following  as 
seems  feasible : — Phacelia  tanacttifolia,  alfalfa,  filaree,  geranium, 
sages,  sunflower,  thistle  and  milkweed,  finishing  Chapters  IX,  X,  XI, 
XII  and  XV.  In  connection  with  this  work  note  family  character- 
istics so  that  at  the  end  of  this  grade  children  will  be  able  to  recognize 
members  of  most  of  the  following  families  : —lily,  poppy,  mustard, 
pea,  evening-primrose,  Gilia,  blue-eyes,  forget-me-not,  Scropularia- 
ceae,  Labiatae  and  Compositae. 

FIELD  WORK. — Out  of  door  study  of  the  above.  Collecting  plants 
for  a  herbarium  is  an  excellent  stimulus  for  field  work,  and  this  may 
sometimes  be  practicable  in  grammar  grades.  The  amount  of  time 
available  for  this  line  of  work  must  be  considered.  At  least  urge 
contributions  of  specimens  from  children  who  spend  the  summer  at 
the  seaside  or  in  the  mountains. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Review  of  Reader  with  some  classification  in  mind.  Give  more 
attention  to  reproduction.  Possibly  a  herbarium  of  typical  plants 
might  be  required. 

AUTUMN. — Chapters  I  and  IV,  considering  as  many  species  of 
Algae  and  Fungi  as  seems  feasible. 

WINTER. — Ferns  and  Coniferse,  Chapter  VI  and  first  part  of  Chap- 
ter XIII. 

SPRING. — Endogens  and  Exogens,  Chapters  XIII  and  XIV. 

The  work  outlined  in  each  grade  assumes  that  the  work  of  the 
previous  grades  has  been  completed.  Of  course  the  classification 
suggested  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  should  not  be  under- 
taken unless  there  is  already  an  acquaintance  with  a  large  number  of 
plants.  Often  these  last  two  years  can  be  best  used  for  picking  up 
loose  ends.  The  author  considers  the  work  outlined  in  the  first  three 
and  the  fifth  grades  of  most  importance. 

133 


INDEX 


This  index  includes  the  plants  and  topics  of  both  Reader  and  Sup- 
plement, the  numbers  following  "  s  "  referring  to  the  Supplement. 


Abies,  s  100. 

Abronia,  s  no. 

Abyssinia,  s  115. 

Acacia,  108,  180,   181,  s  23,  38,  63, 

113- 

Acanthus,  5114. 

Acer,  see  Maple. 

Achillea,  s  93. 

Achyrodes,  s  123. 

Acorn,  31,  Fig.  8,  p.  31.  s  13,  61. 

Adenostoma,  s  118.  See  also  Grease- 
wood. 

Adiantum,  77,  79,  Fig.  27,  p.  76.  s 
46.  See  also  Maiden-Hair. 

Africa,  South,  s  113,  117. 

Agaricus,  s  34. 

Agave,  s.  103. 

Aggregatae,  182. 

Akene,  s  53. 

Albumen,  s  5,  12,  19. 

Alder,  40,  71, 104, 172,  Fig.  38,  p.  103, 
s  28,  41,  59.  60,  109. 

Alfalfa,  129-132,  193,  Fig  50,  p.  130, 
s  78,  175. 

Algae,  17-24,  56,  s  3,  10-13. 

Alkali  Grass,  s  105,  123. 

Alkali  Weed,  174,  Fig.  64,  p.  173, 
See  also  Yerba  Mansa. 

Allium,  s  56.     See  also  Onion. 


Allspice,  179. 

Almond,  180. 

Alnus,  see  Alder. 

Alyssum,  Sweet,  175,  s  68. 

Amamta,  s  34. 

Amarantaceae,  s  no,  126. 

Amaranthus,  s  126. 

Amaryllis  Family,  163-164. 

Ambrosia,  s  91. 

Amelanchier,  s  113, 

Amsinckia,  121,  122,  207,  s  72,  123. 

Anemopsis,  174,  Fig.  64,    p.  173,  s 

109. 

Angiosperms,  162,  s  101. 
Anise,  157. 
Annuals,  39. 
Anthemis,  s  93. 
Anther,  Definition  of,  87. 
Anther,  s.  49. 
Antheridium,  s  10,  42  45. 
Anthocyanin,  s.  41. 
Antirrhinum,  s  85. 
Apetalae,  s  108,  no. 
Apium,  s  95. 
Aplopappus,  s  25,  90. 
Apple,  107,  179,  s  59,  62. 
Apricot,  105,  107. 
Apron  Kelp,  s  9. 
Aqueous  Tissue,  s  117. 


INDEX 


Arabia,  s  115. 

Arbor  Vitte,  s  98. 

Arbutus,  70,  181,  s  40,  65. 

Archegoniatae,  s  42. 

Archegonium,  s  42-45. 

Arctic  Regions,  54. 

Arctostaphylos,  s  65. 

Argemone,  s  67. 

Aristolochiaceae,  s  109,  no. 

Aroids,  s  104. 

Artemisia,  s  25,  93. 

Asarum,  s  no. 

Asclepias,  186-189,  Fig.  66,  p.  188. 

s  116. 
Ash,  s  no. 
Asparagus,  164. 
Aspidium,  s  46.     See   also  Shield 

Fern. 

Asplenium,  s  46. 
Aster,  s  25,  89,  90. 
Astragalus,  80. 
Audibertia,  146-150,  Fig.  57,  p.  149. 

s86. 

Australia,  43,  174,  179,  s  109. 
Autumn  Leaves,  48,  s  27,  28. 
Autumn  Plants,  39  50,  s  20,  28. 
Avena,  s  126.     See  also  Wild  Oats. 
Awns,  s  106. 
Azalea,  181,  s  113. 
Azolla,  s  47. 

Baby-Blue-Eyes,  117,  s  70,  71. 

Baccharis,  s  90. 

Bachelor's  Button,  s  94. 

Bacteria,  51-52,  s  17,  29,  30. 

Baeria,  s  76,  91. 

Balsam,  s  81. 

Bamboo,  168,  s  105. 

Banana,  162. 

Banyan,  s  109. 

Barberry,  s  32,   in. 

Bark,  s  58,  59. 


Barley,  162,     168,  s   106.     See   also 

Foxtail  Grass. 
Bass  wood,  s  112. 
Bast,  s  58. 
Bay,  175. 
Beach  Plants,  41. 
Bean,  29,  133,  Fig.  7,  p.   30,  s  13. 
Beech,  172,  s  109. 
Bees,  47,  70,  71,89,90,92,95,100, 

101,  I08,    112,    Il6,     119,   121,  122, 

123, 125   128,  129,  131,  133,  140, 
142, 144,  146,  148,  150,  155.  184, 

186,  188,  194,  197,   198,  s  41,  51- 
55,   60,   64-67,   70-74,  78,  87,  96, 

102,  116-118,  120,  121,127. 
Beet,  170,  s  no. 

Beetles,  57,  90,  no,  s  34. 

Beggar's  Ticks,  s  95. 

Begonia,  175. 

Bermuda  Grass,  170,  205. 

Beta,  s  1 10. 

Bidens,  s  21,  92,  95. 

Big  Chia,  146,  148,  s  86. 

Bigelovia,  s  25. 

Big-Root,  see  Chilicothe. 

"Big  Tree,"  109,  161,  s  6r,  99. 

Bilabiate -Families,  138-150,  s  83-88. 

Birch.  172,  s  109. 

Bird-Foot  Fern,  79    80,  Fig.  28,  p. 

78,  s  46. 

Birds  and  Seeds,  s  63. 
Bitter   Clover,    205,  Fig.  72,  p.  206 
Blackberry,  108,  179,  s  62,  75,  121. 
Black  Lily,  s.  104. 
Black  Sage,   146-148,    Fig.    67,    p. 

149.     See  also  Sages. 
Bleeding  Heart,  sin. 
Bloomeria.  163,  s  102. 
Blue-Curls,  47,   150,    197,    201,  207, 

Fig.  15,  p.  49,  s  26,  86.     See  also 

Trichostema. 
Blue- Eyed    Grass.    181,    207,  Fig. 


INDEX 


61,  p.  165,  s  76,  123, 
Blue- Eyes  Family,  117-121,  181. 
Blue  Flowers  and  Bees,  184,  198  s 

5i. 

Boraginaceae,  s  69,  114. 
Bowlesia,  595. 
Box  Elder,  s  112. 
Bracken,  80,  198,  201,  s  46,  124. 
Bracts,  Leaves  among  Flowers. 
Brass  Buttons,  s  93. 
Brassica,  s  68.     See  also   Mustard. 
Brazil- Nut,  179. 
Bread  Fruit,  174,  s  109. 
Breathing,  41.     See  also   Respira- 
tion. 
Breathing  Pores,  36,  37,  Fig.  10,  p. 

36.     See  also  Stomata. 
Brodisea,  9*-93,  Fig-  33,  P-  9T,  s  57- 

53,  101,  123.       See    also  Cluster 

Lily. 

Brome  Grass  (Bromus),  205,  s  123. 
Broom,  California  or  Wild,  40,  44, 

Fig.  ir,  p.  45,  s  24,  80.     See  also 

Lotus  glaber 
Broom-Corn,  s  106. 
Brown  Algae,  21,  22,   Fig.   2,  p.  20, 

s  8. 

Brown  Lily,  163,  s  56. 
Brussels  Sprouts,  176. 
Bryophytes,  s  42 
Buckeye,  177,  s  112. 
Buckwheat,  Wild,  44,  174,  191,  Fig. 

12,  p.  45,  Fig.   68,  p.   192,  s  24, 

no.    118.     See  also  Eriogonum. 
Buds,  71,  100,  104,  Fig.  38,  p.  103, 

S4i,57,59- 

Bulb,  64-66,  93,  183,  Fig.  22,  p.  65. 
Bulrush,  164. 
Bumble-Bee,    129,    133,  148,  171,  s 

78. 

Bunch  Grass,  168,  s  106. 
Bur-Clover,  39,  61-62, 130,  132,  202, 


Fig.  20,  p.  62,  Fig.  50,    p.    131,  s 

37,  38,  78. 

Bur-Marigold,  s  21,  92. 
Burdock,  211. 
Buttercup,  89,  90,  97,   198,  Fig.  32, 

p.  88,  s  53,  no. 
Buttercup  Family  (Ranunculaceae), 

175- 
Butterfly,  92,  93,  116,  121,  131,  142, 

155,  186,  194. 
Butteifly   Tulip,    125,    Fig.   48,   p. 

124,  374. 

Button  Bush,  s  115. 
Button  Sage,  146,    148.     See  also 

Black  Sage. 

Cabbage,  175,  176. 

Cactus,  42,44, 175, 176, 178, 189-191, 

201,  Fig.  16,  p.  50,  Fig.  67,  p.  190, 

s  24,  117. 
Calabazilla,  s  124. 
Calandrinia,  75,  201,  207,3  no,  125. 
Calico  Kelp,  s  9. 
Calla,  97  98.  162,  164,  Fig.  36,  p.  98, 

s  54,  104. 
Calochortus,  123,  125,   Fig.   48,  p. 

124,  s  73,  74.     See  also  Mariposa. 
Calyciflorae,  178. 
Calyx,  Definition  of,  87. 
Cambium,  s  59,  101. 
Camellia,  s  112. 
Campanulaceae,  s  114. 
Camphor,  175,  s  in. 
Camphor  Weed,   s   26.      See  also 

TricLostema. 
Canada  Thistle,  211. 
Canaigre,  200,  s  no. 
Cancer  Root,  s  83. 
Canna,  160,  170,  s  106. 
Canterbury  Bells,  s  114. 
Canterbury    Bells,     see     Phacelia 

Whitlavia. 


INDEX 


Caper  Family,  s  in. 

Capparidaceae,  s  in. 

Caprifoliaceae,  s  115. 

Capsella,  s  68,  69. 

Capsule,  s  53,  54. 

Caraway,  157',  s  94,  95- 

Carbo-hydrates,  s  5. 

Carbonic   Acid  Gas,  19,  37,  52,  s  5> 

18. 

Cardinal  Flower,  s  114,  120. 
Carduus,  s  93. 
Carnation  Pink,  174. 
Carrot,  s  94,  95. 
Carum,  s  95. 
Caryophyllaceae,  s  no. 
Cascara,  s  65. 
Cassia,  175,  s  in. 
Castilleia,  142,  144,  200,  Fig.  54,  p. 

143,  385,  120. 

Castor-Oil     Plant,    25-27,    36,    38, 
117,  211,  Fig.  5,  p.  26,  Fig.  10,  p. 
36,  s  n,  26,  127. 
Casuarinaceae,  s  109. 
Catalpa,  s  114. 
Catasetum,  s  107. 
Catch-Fly,  s  no. 
Catkin,  100. 
Cat-Tail,  162, 164, 170. 
Cat's  Ears,  125. 
Caulicle,  32. 
Cauliflower,  176. 
Ceanothus,    s     40,    64.     See    also 

Lilac. 

Cedar,  s  98. 
Celery,  157,  s  94,  95. 
Cell,  18,  S3,  4- 
Cell  Division,  s  6. 
Cellular  Structure,  35-37,   Fig.    10, 

p.  36,  s  9,  17,  58. 
Cellulose,  55,  19. 

Centaurea,  210,  Fig.  72,  p.  106,  s  94, 
95,  125. 


Century  Plant,    162,    164,  s  24,  103, 

117. 

Cercocarpus,  s  65. 
Cereus,  s  118. 
Ceylon,  sin. 
Chaenactis,  s  92. 
Chamisal,  191,  s  118. 
Chamomile,  s  96. 
Chaparral,  109,  191,  s  80. 
Cheeses,  75,  176.  See  also  Malva. 
Cheilanthes,  s  46. 
Chenopodiacese,  s  no,  126. 
Chenopodium,  s  126. 
Cherry,   Wild,    107,    109,   179,  180, 

s65. 

Chess,  211,  s  125. 
Chestnut,  172,  s  99,  109. 
Chia,  146,  s  86. 
Chickweed,  94,  174,   202,  s  55,  no, 

125. 

Chicory,    150,  s  94. 
Chilicothe,   66-68,    182,    201,    207, 

Fig.   23,   p.   67,   s  39,   ii4,  121, 

122,  124. 

Chili  Cojote,  s  124. 
Chili  Pepper,  s  73. 
Chinese  Lily,  99,  164,  s  54. 
Chlorogalum,  183,  184,  s  39,     116. 

See  also  Soap-Root. 
Chlorophyll,  19,  24,  37,  51,  s  4,  22. 
Chloroplasts,  s  4. 
Chocolate,  176,8  112. 
Choripetalse  (Petals  not  united),  s 

1 10. 

Chorizanthe,  s  no. 

Chrysanthemum,  s  93. 

Cinchona,  s  115. 

Cinnamon,  175,3111. 

Citrus,  s  112. 

Cladophora,  s  6,  8. 

Clarkia,  194,  Fig.  69,  p.  195,  s  119. 

Classification,  160,  s  83,  98. 


INDEX 


Clematis,  40,  175,  s  21,  in. 
Climbing  Nemophila,  117,  119,  Fig. 

44,  P-  117- 
Climbing  Pentstemon,  194-196,  197, 

Fig-  75,  P-  196,  541,  121. 
Climbing  Plants,  68,  117,  119,  123, 

133,  193,  196,  199,  s  38,  40,  41,  80, 

82,  119,  I20-I2I. 

Clocks,  see  Filaree. 

Close  Pollination,  see  Pollination. 

Clover,  132,  133,  s  38,  78,  79. 

Cloves,  179. 

Club-Moss,  s  43,  48. 

Cluster  Lily,  66,  90  93,  97,  Fig.  22, 

p.  65,  Fig.  33,  p.  91,  s  53,  54. 
Clusters  of  Flowers,   see    Flower 

Cluster. 
Cnicus,  Fig.   59,  p.   156,393.     See 

also  Thistle. 
Coal  and  Ferns,  84. 
Cocklebur,  182,  202,  210,  s  91. 
Cocoa-Nut  Palm,  s  105 
Cocometa,   66.      See  also    Cluster 

Lily. 

Coffee,  3115. 
Coffee,  California,  s  65. 
Coffee  Fern,  78,  79,  Fig.   27,  p.  76, 

s  46. 
Collinsia,  140-142,  Fig.  53,  p.  141, 

584. 

Color  of  Autumn   Leaves,  48,  s  28, 
Color,  Physiology  of,  s  51. 
Columbine,  175,  197. 
Communities  of  Flowers,  155,  159. 
Competition  among  Plants,  50. 
Composite,   44,    151-159,   182,  197, 

200,  s  25,  75,  89-97,  114. 
Compound  Pistil,  92,  s  49. 
Conductive  Tissue,  35,  37,  s  17,  58. 
Cone,  27,  161,  Fig.  7,  p.  28,  Fig.  40, 

p.  106,  s  61. 
Cone- Bearers,  see  Coniferae. 


Coniferae,   27-29,161,   162,  s  23,  44, 

61,98,  100. 

Convolvulacese,  s  73,  114. 
Conium,  s  94. 

Convolvulus,  see  Morning-Glory. 
Copa  de  Oro,  s  66. 
Coprinus,  s  34. 
Corallina,  s  9. 
Cordylanthus,  s  86. 
Coreopsis,  s  92. 
Corethrogyne,  s  95. 
Coriander,  157,  s  94,  95. 
Coriandrum,  s  95. 
Cork,  s  58. 
Cork-Oak,  s  58,  108. 
Corm  (a  Solid  Bulb),  553. 
Corn,  Indian,  32,  38,  42,  162,  168, 

170,  Fig.  9,  p.  32,  s  13,  105. 
Cornaceae,  s  113. 
Corolla,  Definition  of,  87. 
Cotton,  176,  s  112. 
Cotton  wood,   40,  71,  104,    Fig.    50, 

p.   103,  s  28,   60,  108.     See  also 

Poplar. 
Cotula,  s  93. 
Cotyledons,  27-34,  s  118.     See  also 

Seed-Leaves. 

Coulter's  Poppy,  112,  s  67. 
Cow-Tree,  174. 
Crabs  and  Sea  Mosses,  22. 
Cranberries,  181. 
Crape  Myrtle,  179. 
Crassulacese,  s  117,  118. 
Cream-Cup,  112,  Fig.  41,  p.  in,  s 

66,  67. 

Crimson-Flowered  Sage,  150. 
Crocus,  162,  164. 

Cross-Pollination,  see  Pollination. 
Croton,  Hairs  of,  Fig.  16,  p.  50. 
Crown  Imperial,  s  101. 
Cruciferse  (Mustard  Family),   175- 

176,  207,  557,  68,  125. 


INDEX 


Crude  Sap,  37. 

Cryptograms,  s  44. 

Cucumber,   Wild,  see    Chilicothe. 

Cucumber  Vine  (Cucurbita),  182, 
s  124. 

Cucumber  Family  (Cucurbitaceae) 
182,  s  114. 

Cup-Fungus,  s  35. 

Currants,  Wild,  68-70,  108,  178, 
Fig.  24,  p.  69,  s  40,  64. 

Cuticle,  s  17,  23. 

Cuscuta,  s  73,  118.  See  also  Dod- 
der. 

Cyclamen,  181. 

Cycads,  s  98. 

Cypress,  108,  109,  Fig.  40,  p.  106, 
598. 

Cypripedium,  s  106. 

Daisy,  151,  154. 

Dandelion,  151,154,  155.  s  94- 

Dangers  to  Plants,  41-42. 

Date  Palm,  s  105. 

Datura,  s  22,  73,  114,  121.     See  also 

"Jimson"  Weed. 
Darlingtonia,  s  in,  112 
Darnel,  s  123. 
Daucus,  s  95. 
Deciduous,  48,  s  27,  28. 
Decay  and  Bacteria,  52. 
Decaying  Leaves,  48. 
Delphinium,  s  116.     See  Larkspur. 
Dendromecon,  s  67. 
Desert  Plants,  181,  s  22.     See   also 

Dry  Season  Plants. 
Desmid,  s  57. 
Diatom,  s  7. 
Dicentra,  s  in. 
Dicotyledons,   172-182,   s  101,  108, 

US- 

Dill,  157,  s  94- 
Dimorphic,  s  70,  72. 


Dioecious  (Staminate  and  pistillate 

flowers  on  different  plants),  s  96. 
Dipsaceae,  s  114. 

Disease  and  Bacteria,  61,  s  29,  30. 
Distribution  of  Corms,  s  53. 
Distribution  of   Seeds,    see    Seed 

Distribution . 

Distribution  of  Spores,  57,  s  34. 
Distribution  of  Willows,  s  59. 
Ditch  Grass,  s  104. 
Divided  Leaves,  64,  75. 
Dock,   170,  202,  210,    Fig.   73,   p. 

209,  s  no,  126. 
Dodder,    181,    191-194,   Fig.   68,  p. 

196,  s  73,  118,  121,125. 
Dodecatheon,  95,  97,  Fig.  35,  p,  96, 

S54- 

Dogbane,  s  114. 
Dogwood,  113. 
Dormant  Buds,  57. 
Douglass  Spruce,  100. 
Dragon  Tree,  102. 
Drosera,  in,  112. 
Drupe  (Stone  Fruit,)  62. 
Dry  Climate,  Plants  of,  s  20-28. 
Dry  Rot,  s  36. 
Dry  Season,  Plants  of,  39-50,  s  22- 

27. 

Duckweed,  166,  s.  104. 
Dust  and  Plants,  41,  s  22. 
Dutchman's  Pipe,  s  109. 

Earth  Star,  57-59,   Fig-   J9.  P-  5$, 

S35- 

Ebony,  181. 
Egg-Cell,  s  10,  42,  50. 
Egg  Plant,  373,  113. 
Eidelweiss,  s  90. 
Elder,  s  28,  6r,  115 
Ellisia,  121,  Fig.  45,  p.  118,  s  71. 
Elm,  172,  s  109. 
Elodea,  207,  s  124. 


INDEX 


Embryo,  32. 

Embryo  Sac,  s  1 1. 

Emmenanthe,  371. 

Encino,  s  108. 

Endogens,  160-171,98-107. 

Endosperm,  32,  s  12,  13. 

Encelia,  391. 

English  Ivy,  s  113,  122. 

Epidermis  (skin),  42,  s  17,  23. 

Epiphytes,  s  107. 

Equisetum,  83,  Fig.  29,  p.  82,  s  43. 

47- 

Eremocarpus,  41,  47,  Fig.  14,  p.  47, 
s  22,  25,  120.  See  also  Turkey- 
Weed. 

Ericaceae,  s  120.  See  also  Heath 
Family. 

Erigeron,  s  90. 

Eriodictyon,  s  72. 

Eriogonum,  44,  174,  191-193,  Fig. 
12,  p.  45,  Fig.  68,  p.  192,  s  24,  no, 
118.  See  also  Buckwheat. 

Eriophjllum,  s  92. 

Erodium,  134-136,  s  38.  See  also 
Filaree. 

Erythraea,  s  114. 

Erysimum,  s  68. 

Eschscholtzia,  110-112;  Fig.  41,  p. 
111,366,133.  See  also  Poppy. 

Eucalyptus,  42,  43,   107,  179,  s  23, 

54,  99- 

Euphorbia,  177,  178,  s  126. 
Euphorbiaceae,  177-178,  s  112. 
Evaporation ,  see  also  Transpiration. 
Evening  Primrose,  178, 179,  s  69,  70. 
Evening-Primrose     Family    (Ona- 

graceae),  114,  s  69,  119. 
Everlasting  Flower  (Gnaphalium), 

44,  46,  68,  s  25,90. 
Exogens,  172-182,  s  101,  108-115. 
Explosive  Fruits,  s  81. 


Fairy's   Lantern,    123,   Fig.  48,  p. 

124. 

Falling  of  Leaves,  s  27,  28. 
Families  of  Plants,    160-182,  s  89- 

Feather  Moss,  s  9. 

Fennel,  157,  202,  s  94,  95,  96,  127. 

Ferns,  72-84,  s  37,  45-47. 

Ferns  not  Eaten,  s  47. 

Fern  Prothallium,  74,  Fig.  30,  p.  84. 

Fern  "  Seeds,"  73,  74,  s  47. 

Ferns,  Young  Plants,  74,  75. 

Fertilization  (Union  of  sperm  and 

egg  cells),   87,   s  50.     See  also 

Pollination. 
Fertilizing  Cells,  s  42. 
Ficoideae,  s  117. 
Ficus,  s  109.     See  Fig. 
Fig,  107,  172,  174,  Fig.  38,  p.  103,  s 

63,  109. 

Filament,  Definition  of,  87. 
Filaree,  39,  61-64,  I35-T36,  202-204, 

Fig.  20,  p  62,  Fig.  21,  p.  63,  Fig. 

51,  p.  134,  s  14,  38,  80,  81. 
Fimbriaria,  s  44. 
Firs,  109,  s  60,  100. 
Flag,  99,  162,  164,  s  120.      See  Iris. 
Flax,  177,  s  112. 

Flea-Weed,    s    26.       See    Turkey- 
Weed. 

Fleshy  Fruits,  107, 180,  s  62, 63, 1 13. 
Fleshy  Plants,  42,  44,  s  20,  24. 
Flies,  57,  no,  121,  154,  186,  s  34,  35, 

39,  53,  74.  82. 
Flower  Cluster,  97,  s  96. 
Flowering  Maple,  176. 
Flowering  Willow,  90. 
Flowers,  Structure  and  Function  of, 

85-89,  s  49-50. 
Fly-Flower,  s  76. 
Fceniculum,  s  95. 


INDEX 


Food  in  Seeds,  27,  29,  39,  180,  203. 
Food-Making,  17-24,  29,  43,62,  s  4- 

6,  18. 
Forget-me-not,  114,  121,  Fig.  46,  p. 

120,  s  69. 
Forget-me-not   Family     (Borgina- 

ceae),  121,  181,  s  69,  72,  73. 
Four-O'clock,  174,  s  55,  no. 
Foxglove,  s  114. 
Foxtail  Grass,  61,  170,  202,  204,  205, 

Fig.  20,  p.  62,  s  123. 
Franseria,  s  91,  95. 
Freemontia,  s  65. 
Freesia,  164. 
Fritillaria,  s  56. 
Fuchsia  Family,  see  Evening-Prim-  j 

rose  Family. 
Fuchsia,    Wild,   48,   49,    194,    195, 

197,  Fig-  15,  P-  49,  s  26,  119.    See 

also  Zauschneria. 
Fucus,  s  8. 
Fungi,  52-59,  s  29-36. 

Galium,  s  115. 
Gamopetalae,  s  113. 
Gentian,  182,  198,  s  114,  120. 
Geraniacese    (Geranium    Family), 

135-137,  s  80-82. 
"Geranium,"  Cultivated,  136-137, 

177,  s  80,  81. 
Germination  of  Seeds,  25-38,  s  n- 

19. 

Gigartina,  s  9. 
Gilia,   114-117,  181,   198,  207,  Fig. 

43,  p.  115,552,  69,  70,  126. 
Gilia  Family  (Polemoniacese),  181. 
Ginger  Plant,  170. 
Gladiolus,  162,  164. 
Glandular  Hairs,  s  26. 
Globe  Tulip,    123,   Fig.  48,  p.  124, 

S74. 
Gloxinia,  s  114. 


Gnetaceae,  s  98. 

Gnaphalium,  Fig.  16,  p.  60,   s  25, 

90.  See  also  Everlasting  Flower, 
Godetia,  194,  Fig.  69,  p.  195,  s  119. 
Golden-Back  Fern,  75,  77,  Fig.  27, 

p.  76,  s  46. 

Golden  Ear-Drop,  s  in. 
Golden  Fields,  154,  s  76. 
Golden  Lily  Bell,  123. 
Golden-Rod,  s  25,  90. 
Golden  Star  Ivily,  163,  s  102. 
Golden  Yarrow,  s  92. 
Gold  Thread,  59, 193.     See  Dodder. 
Gooseberry,  68,  70,   108,  178,   Fig. 

25,  p.  70,  s  40,  64. 
Goosefbot,  s  no,  126. 
Grape,  40,  177,  s  21,  112,  121,  122. 
Grasses,  61,  137,  162,  168-170,  s  105, 

106. 
Greasewood,   109,   180,    191.      See 

Adenostoma. 
Green  Algae,  17-21,  Fig.  4,  p.  23,  s 

3-7- 

Grevillea,  179. 
Grindelia,  s  89. 
Ground  Cherry,  s  73. 
Ground  Pink,  116,  Fig.  43,  p.  115, 

570. 

Groundsel,  s  76,  91,  92. 
Guava,  179. 
Gum  Arabic,  181. 
Gymnogramme,  s  46. 
Gymnosperms,  161-162,  s  98. 

Habenaria,  176,  s  106. 

Hairs,  Plant,  41,  44,  46,  47,  Fig.  16, 

p.  50,  s  25. 
Heath  Family  (Ericaceae),   181,   s 

ii3- 

Heather,  181. 
Hedge-Nettle,  s  86. 
Helianthus,  151 -154,  Fig.  58,  p.  125, 

s  25,  91.     See  also  Sunflower. 


INDEX 


Heliotrope  Family,  121,  s  69. 
Heliotrope,  Wild  (Heliotropium),  s 

72,  124. 
Heliotrope,  Wild  (Phacelia),  s  71, 

125. 

Hemizonia,  s  92,  93. 
Hemlock,  157. 
Hemp,  s  109. 

Hen-and-Chickens,  s  20,  117. 
Heteromeles,  s  22,  65. 
Heterotheca,  s  89. 
Hibiscus,  176. 
Hickory,  s  109. 
Higher  Plants,  25. 
Hoarhound,  42,  68,  146,  202,  210,  s 

25,86,  114. 

Holdfast,  21,  22,  Fig.  2,  p.  20. 
Holly,  California,  40,  s  22,  65,  113. 
Holly,  English,  or  True,  s  112. 
Hollyhock,  75. 
Honey,  see  Pollination. 
Honey  Guides,  93,  s  53,  55,  82. 
Honeysuckle,  s  65,  115. 
Hop,  s  109. 
Hordeum,  s  123.     See  also  Foxtail 

Grass. 

Horse-Chestnut,  177,  s  112. 
Horse-Radish,  176. 
Horsetail,  83,  Fig.  29,  p.  82,  s  43.47- 
Hosackia,  133,  s  24.  See  also  Lotus. 
House-Fly  Fungus,  53. 
Houttuynia,  s  109. 
Hoya,  s  114. 

Huckleberry,  181,  s  113. 
Humboldt  Lily,  163. 
Humid  Climate,  Trees  of,  s  58. 
Humming  Birds,  48,  70,  108,   109, 

137,  139,   140,   142,   144,  150,  155. 

186,  194,  196,  198,  s  27,  40,  51-51, 

64,  81,  82,  84,  85,  86,    119,   121, 

127. 
Hyacinth,  164. 


Hybrids,  s  87-88. 

Hydrocotyle,  s  94. 

Hydrodictyon,  17-21,   Fig.  i,  p.  18, 

S3- 

Hydrophyllacese,  s  64,  114. 
Hygrometric,  83,  s  35,  46. 

Ice  Plant,  170,  s  117. 

Impatiens,  s  81. 

Incense  Cedar,  s  98. 

India,  179,  s  in,  112. 

Indian  Lettuce,  s  55. 

Indian  Pink,  174,  194,  197,  Fig.  70, 
p.  195,  s  119.  See  also  Silene. 

Indian  Plume,  142,  Fig.  54,  p.  143. 
See  also  Castilleia. 

Indian  Warrior,  s  86. 

India-Rubber,  174,  178. 

Indigo,  s  113. 

Inferior  Ovary,  113,  163,  178. 

Injurious  Fungi,  53,  54. 

Innocence,  s  84. 

Insectivorous  Plants,  s  in. 

Insects  and  Color,  s  51-52. 

Insects  and  Plants,  see  Pollination. 

Iris,  99,  555,  120. 

Iris  Family,  164. 

Involucre  (around  flower  clus- 
ters), s  97. 

Isomeris,  s  in. 

Ithuriel's  Spear,  s  101. 

Ivory  Nuts,  s  105. 

Ivy,  s  113,  122. 

Ivy-Geranium,  s  81. 

Jack-in-the-Pulpit,  s  104. 
Jamaica,  83,  s  45. 
Japan,  164. 
Jasmine,  182. 
Java,  s  109,  115. 

"Jimson"  Weed,  181,  210,  s  22,  73, 
127.  See  also  Datura. 


INDEX 


\BRA  f. 

OF   THK 


Joint-Firs,  s  98. 
Jonquil,  164. 
Judas  Tree,  180. 
Juglans,  see  Walnut. 
Juncaceae,  see  Rushes. 
Juniper,  s  98. 

Kail,  176. 

Kelp,  21,  22,  Fig.  2,  p.  20,  s  80. 
Kentucky  Blue  Grass,  s  105. 
Knotweed,  174,  210,  Fig.  73,  p.  209,  s 

no,  126. 
Krynitzkia,  72. 

Labiatte,  146-150,  s  39,  86-88. 

Lace  Fern,  80,  Fig.  28,  p.  78,  s  46. 

Lace  Pod,  s  68. 

Lady  Fern,  s  46. 

Lady  Slipper,  s  106. 

Lady  Washington,  s  Si. 

Lamarkia,  s  123. 

Larkspur,  75, 175, 184, 186, 197,  Fig. 

65.  P-  i85,  s  in,  116. 
Lathyrus,  s  79. 
Laurel,  175,  s  61,  in. 
Lavatera,  s  65. 
Lavender,  s  114. 
Layia,  s  75,  91. 
Leaf  Arrangement,  s  30. 
Leaf-Bud  of  Ferns,  s  47. 
Leaf  Mosaic,  68,  s  38. 
Leaf  Movement,  62-64,  s  39,  82. 
Leaf  Protection,  70,  75-80,  s  22,  23. 
Leaf,  Structure  of,  37,  37,  s  17. 
Leaves  and  Dew,  s  41. 
Leaves  and  Rainfall,  97,  99. 
Leaves  of  Autumn  Plants,  40-41. 
Leaves  of  Endogens,  162. 
Leaves  of  Exogens,  172. 
Leaves,  Sleeping  Position  of,  s  38. 
Leguminosse,   126-133,   i&>»  181,  s 

30,  77-80,  113. 


Lemnacese,  s  104. 

Lemonade  Bush,  s  64. 

Lemon  Seeds,  s  13. 

Lemon  Verbena,  s  114. 

Leopard  Lily,  163. 

Lepidium,  s  68. 

Lepidospartum.  s  24. 

Leptosyne,  s  76,  91,  92. 

Lettuce,  s  94. 

Lettuce,  Miner's,  s  55. 

Libocedrus,  s  98. 

Lichen,  54  57,  161,  Fig.  18,  p.  55,  s 

32-34,  103. 
Light  and  Plants,  19,  37, 41, 62-64,  s 

22. 

Liguliflorse,  s  94. 

Lilac,  California,  or  Wild,  70,  108, 

177,  182,  s  40. 
Liliacese  (Lily  Family),  162-164,  s 

56,  101. 

Lily,  162,  163,  164,  198,  207. 
Lily-of-the-Valley,  s  101. 
Lime,  s  112. 
Linaria,  s  85. 
Linden,  s  112. 
Little  Chia,  146-148,  s  86.    See  also 

Salvia. 

Live-for-ever,  178,  s  20,  117. 
Live  Oak,  43,  107,  s  23.     See  also 

Oak. 
Liverworts,  81,  Fig.  30,  p.  84,  s  37, 

42-45- 

Lobelia,  s  114. 
Lobularia,  s  68. 
Loco  Weed,  133,  s  80. 
Locust,  s  113. 
Lolium,  s  123. 
Lonicera,  s  65. 
Lotus,  133,  Fig.  11,  p.  45,  s  24,  80. 

See  also  Broom. 
Love-Vine,  see  Dodder. 
Lunularia,  s  44. 


INDEX 


Lupine,  68,  126-129,  140,  142,  Fig. 

21,  p.  63,  Fig.  49,  p.  127,  e  40,  77- 

78,  123- 
Lycopodium,  s  48. 

Mace,  175,  s  in. 

Macrocystis,  22,  Fig.  2,  p.  20,  s  8. 

Macrospore,  s  43 > 

Madia,  s  92. 

Madrone,  109,  181,  s  65,  113. 

Magnolia,  175,823,  59,  in. 

Mahogany,  California,  107,   180,  s 

64. 
Maiden-Hair  Fern,  77,  79,  Fig.  27, 

p.  76,  s  46. 
Malacothrix,  154,  Fig.  13,  p.  46,  s 

25,  94- 
Malva,  61,  62,   175,    176,  202,  203, 

Fig.  20,  p.  62,  s  37. 
Malvaceae  (Malva  Family),  175, 176, 

565,  112. 

Malvastrum,  s  65. 
Manioc,  178. 

Man-Root,  see  Chilicothe. 
Manzanita,  43,  108,  109,  181,  s  23, 

65,  113- 

Maple,  177,  s  61,  112. 
Marine  Alg&e,  21-24,8  7-10. 
Mariposa,   123,  125,  194,  200,  Fig. 

48,  p.  124,  s  73-74. 
Marrubium,  s  25. 
Marsh  Pennywort,  s  94. 
Mate",s  112. 

Matilija  Poppy,  112,  s  67. 
Matricaria,  s  125. 
Mayweed,  211,  s  93,  125. 
Meadow  Rue,  175,  s  in. 
Meconopsis,  112,  s  67. 
Medicago,  129-132,  Fig.  50,  p.  130, 

s78. 

Medullary  Rays,  s  58. 
Megarrhiza,  see  Chilicothe. 


Melilotus,  205,  Fig.  72,  p.  206,  s  124. 
Melon,  182,  s  114. 
Mentha,  s  86. 

Mentzelia,  Hairs  of,  Fig.  16,  p.  50. 
Myrsiphyllum,  s  101. 
Mesembryanthemum,  s  117,  118. 
Metabolism,  s  6,  18,   19. 
Mexico,  129,  189,  s  117. 
Micrampelis,  66,  68,  Fig.  23,  p.  67, 

S39- 

Micromeria,  s  86. 
Micropyle,  s  u. 
Microspore,  s  43. 
Mignonette,  s  in. 
Milkweed,  182,  186-189,  Fig.  66,  p. 

187,  s  114,  116. 

Milkweed     (Sonchus),    see     Sow- 
Thistle. 
Mimulus,  138-140,  150,  197,  Fig.  52, 

p.  139,  s  21,  83-84. 
Minerals  Used  by  Plants,  35,  48,  s 

16. 

Miner's  Lettuce,  97,  s  55,  no. 
Mint,  146,  200,  s  86. 
Mint  Family  (Labiatse),  146-150. 
Mirabilis,  s  55,  no. 
Mistletoe,  s  109,  no. 
Mock  Orange,  s  124. 
Mock  Willow,  s  90. 
Mohave  Desert,  s  66,  70. 
Moisture-Loving  Plants,  s  37-41. 
Monardella,  s  86. 

Monocotyledons,  160-171,  s  98-107. 
Monopetalse,  s  113. 
Monterey  Cypress,  161,  s  61,  98. 
Monterey  Pine,  s  12,  61,  100. 
Morning-Glory,   28,   114,    123,   181, 

193,  201,  207,  211,  Fig.  7,  p.  30,  s 

13,  73,  121,  123. 
Mosses,  81-83,  s  37,  43,  45. 
Moths,  137,  139,  140,  142,  184,  189, 

S  27,  69,  70,  81,  84,  85,  102,  103. 


INDEX 


Mould,  52-53,  Fig.  17,  p.  53,  s  30, 31. 
Mountain  Flowers,  197,  198. 
Mountain  Mahogany,  s  65. 
Mountain  Phlox,  or  Pink,  116,  117, 

Fig.  43,  p.  116,  s  70. 
Mountain  Plants,  s  120-121. 
Mountain  Trees,  109. 
Mouse  Ear,  s  74. 
Movements  of  Roots,  s  16. 
Movements  of  Sap,  s  18,  19. 
Muilla,  s  56. 

Mulberry,  172,  174,  s  109. 
Mullein,  s  85. 
Mushroom,  59,  s  34-35- 
Mustard,   112,  113,  200,  202,  s  68, 

in,  123. 
Mustard  Family,  113, 175,  176,8  67- 

68. 

Mustard  Seeds,  s  14. 
Mycelium,  s  31,  32,  34. 

Naiadaceae,  s  104. 

Naked-Seeded    Plants,     161,    162. 

See  also  Gymnosperms. 
Nasturtium    (Water  Cress),   s    28, 

124. 
Nasturtium    (Tropaeolum),    29,  35, 

s  13,  80,  81,  82,  122. 
Native  Weeds,  201. 
Nelumbium,  s  in. 
Nemophila,  117,  119,  200,  Fig.  44, 

p.  117,869,  70,  71,  121. 
Nereocystis,  s  8. 
Nettle,  174,  210,  s  32,  109,  125. 
Nicotiana,  s  73,  127. 
Night-Blooming  Cereus,  189,  s  118. 
Nightshade,  40,  114,  122,  123,  181, 

Fig-  47,  P  122,  s  21,  69,  73. 
Nightshade    Family   (Solanaceae), 

181,  s  69. 

Nitrogen,  35,  52,  s  5,  17. 
Norway,  161. 


Notholcena,  s  46. 

Nucleus,  s  4. 

Nutmeg,  175,  s  in. 

Nut-Pine,  s  100. 

Nuts,  Protection  and  Distribution 

of,  28,  105. 
Nyctaginaceae,  s  no. 

Oak,   172,  s  59,  60,  61.     See  also 

Live  Oak. 
Oats,  Wild,  168-170,  Fig.  63,  p.  169, 

s  106,  123. 
Odor  of  Plants,  41. 
(Enothera,    114,   Fig.  42,   p.  113,  s 

69. 

Oil,  27,  38,  s  12. 
Okra,  176. 
Oleander,  s  114. 
Olive,  182,  s  114. 
Onagraceae,  see  Evening- Primrose 

Family. 

Onion,  82,  34,  163,  164,  s  56. 
Oogonium,  s  10. 
Opuntia,  189,  191,  Fig.  67,  p.  190,  s 

117,  118. 
Opium,  sin. 
Orange,  108,  177. 
Orchard  Trees,  s  62. 
Orchids,  171,  s  107,  120. 
Oregon  Pine,  s  100. 
Organic  Substances,  19,  35-38,  s  5, 

19- 
Orthocarpus,  142,  207,   Fig.   54,  p. 

143,554,  85,  125. 
Oscillatoria,  s  7. 
Ovary,  Definition  of,  85. 
Ovule,  Definition  of,  85,  s  n,  44. 
Owl's  Clover,  s  84,  85,  125. 
Oxalis,  s  38,  80,  81. 
Oxygen,  19,  24,  37,  34-5,  18,  29. 

Paeonia,  see  Peony. 


INDEX 


Painted   Cup,    142,    196,    197,  Fig. 

54,  p.  143,885.  . 
Painter's   Brush,  142,  Fig.    54,   p. 

143,  s  84,  85. 
Palisade  Cells,  s  17,  23. 
Palm,  162,  166,  168,  s  104-105. 
Palm  Seeds,  34. 
Pansy,  Yellow,  see  Violet. 
Papaver,  s  67. 
Papaveraceae,  s  66-67. 
Papilionaceae,  s  78,  84. 
Papyrus,  170. 
Paraguay  Tea,  s  112. 
Parasite,     51-60,    193.       See     also 

Fungi. 

Parry's  Lily,  163. 
Parsley,  s  94. 
Parsnip,  s  95. 
Passion  Flower,  179. 
Pastinaca,  s  95. 
Paulownia,  s  1 14. 
Pea,  31,  133,  Fig.  7,  p.  30,  s  13,  79, 

122. 

Peach,    105-107,     179,    Fig.  39,  p. 

105,  s  62. 
Pea  Family,  126-133,  I79'i8l»  s  77- 

88. 

Peanut,  29,  31,  38,  133,  s  113. 
Pear,  105-107,  179,  s  62. 
Peat,  83. 
Pecan,  172. 
Pectocarya.  s  72. 
Pedicel,  Flower-Stem. 
Pedicular  is,  s  86. 
Pellsea,  s  46. 
Pelargonium,   s  80,  81.     See    also 

Geranium. 
Pennyroyal,  s  86. 
Pentstemon,     146,    150,     194,   198, 

Fig-  55,  P-  147,  Fig-  7i,  P-  I96.  s 
41,  51,  52,  85,   118,  119,  120,  121. 
Peony,   85-89,   97,    175,  Fig.  31,  p. 
86,  s  49.  52,  no. 


Pepper,  174. 

Pepper  Grass,  175,  s  68. 

Pepper  Tree,  108,  s  23,  59. 

Periwinkle,  s  114. 

Persimmon,  181. 

Petal,  Definition  of,  87,  s  49. 

Petal,  a  modified  Stamen,  s  49, 

Petiole,  Leaf  Stem. 

Petunia,  s  73,  114. 

Peucedanum,  Fig.  60,  p.  158,  595. 

Peziza,  s  33. 

Phacelia,    114,    119,    121,  181,  Fig. 

45,  p,  118,  s  32,  68,  71,  125. 
Photo-Synthesis,  s  5,  18. 
Phyllotaxy,  s  38. 
Physalis,  s  73. 

Physiology  of  Seedlings,  s  14-19. 
Pie-Plants  no. 
Pigments,  s  5. 
Pigweed,  202,  210,  Fig.  73,  p.  209,  s 

no,  126. 

Pimpernel,  181,   5202,  113,125. 
Pine,    27-29,    107,     108,     109,    161, 

162,    Fig.   40,  p.  106,  s  60,  100. 
Pine-Apple,  170,  s  103. 
Pine  Flowers,  s  61. 
Pine  Seeds    27-29,  Fig   7,  p.  28,  s 

12. 

Pink  Family,  no,  125. 
Pink  Painter's  Brush,  s  84,  85.   See 

also  Orthocarpus. 
Pinon,  28,  s  12,  100. 
Pinus,  s  61,  100. 
Pistil,  Definition  of,  85. 
Pistil,  Modified  Leaf,  s  49. 
Pitcher  Plant,  176,  sm,  112. 
Pith,  sioi. 

Plagiobothrys,  Fig.  46,  p.  120,  s  72. 
Platanus,  see  Sycamore. 
Plantain,  202,  s  107. 
Plant,  Products,  37. 
Platystemon,  s  67. 


INDEX 


Platystigma  (Little  White  Poppy), 

112,  s  67. 

Plocamium,  22,  Fig.  3,  p.  23,  s  9. 
Plum,  179,  s  62. 
Plumbago,  s  113. 
Plumule,  32. 
Poinsettia,  177. 
Poison  Hemlock,  s  94, 
Poison  Oak,  40,  48,  68,  108,  177, 

186,  201,  s  21,  28,  64,  121,  124. 
Poisonous  Plants,  25,  157,  178,  sir, 

21,  22,  34,  35,  73,  80,  94,  109,  114, 

126. 
Polemoniaceae  (Gilia  Family),  569, 

114. 
Pollen,  Definition  of,  87. 

Pollination,  conveyance  of  pollen  to 
the  stigma. 

Close,  of  the  same  flower. 
Cross,  of  another  flower. 
Self,  without  foreign  aid. 
68,  70,  71,  87,  88-112,  114-159* 
164-171,  180-199,  s  26.  27,  39- 
4i,  50,  52-55,  60-75,  78-87,  91, 
95,  96,  102,  103,  106,  113,  116- 
121,  126,  127. 
Poly gon ace ae,  s  no,  126. 
Polypetalae,  s  no. 
Polypodium,   72,  Fig.   26,  p.   73,  s  ' 

45- 

Polyporus.  s  35,  36. 
Pome  (Apple-like  Fruit),  s  62. 
Pomegranate,  179. 
Pond  Scum,  17-21,  s  6. 
Pond  Weed,  207,  s  104,  124. 
Pop-Corn  Flower,  s  73. 
Poplar,  104,  Fig.  38,    p.  103,  s  108. 

See  also  Cottonwood. 
Poppy >  110-112,  175,    200,    201,  207, 

Fig.  41,  p.  in,  s66,  in,  124. 
Poppy  Family,  112,  s  66.. 


Populus,  s  60,  108.  See  also  Poplar 

and  Cottonwood. 
Pore-Fungus,  see  Polyporus. 
Pores,  see  Stomata. 
Portulaca,  174,  207,  s  75,  126. 
Portulacaceae,  s  no,  11.7. 
Potato,  s  73,  113. 
Potato  Family,  (Solanaceae),  s  69. 

See  also  Nightshade  Family. 
Potato  Fungus,  53. 
Potentilla,  75. 
Prickles,  41. 

Prickly  Pear,  189.    See  also  Cactus 
Prickly  Poppy,  112,  s  67. 
Primrose,  Fig.  42,  p.  113,181,  198,3 

Progress  of  Weeds,  202. 
Protection  of  Plants,  41-50. 
Protection   of  Pollen,  87,  90,  92, 

93  etc.     See  also  Pollination. 
Prothallium,  74,  s  43. 
Protophytes,  s  7. 
Protoplasm,  19,  37,  s  4. 
Protoplast,  21. 

Prunus,  s.  65.     See  also  Cherry. 
Pteridophyles,  s  42. 
Pteris,  s  46. 
Pterospora,  s  120. 
Puff-Ball,  35,  59,  s  85. 
Pumpkin.  182,  s  114. 
Purslane,  174,  s  no,  126. 
Pussy  Bars,  s  74. 
Putrefaction,  s  30. 
Pyrola,  s  120. 

Quince,  107,  178,  s  62,  65. 
Quercus,  see  Oak. 
Quinine,  s  115. 

Radicle,  32. 

Radish,  175,  176,  s  68,  123. 
Rafflesiaceae,  s  109,  no. 
Ragweed,  211,  s  91. 


INDEX 


Rainy-Season  Plants,  61-71,  s  37-41. 

Ranunculaceae,  175,  s  53,  no. 

Raphanus,  s  68,  123. 

Raspberry,  179,  s  62. 

Rattle  Pods,  133,  s  80. 

Rattlesnake  Weed,  177,  s  126. 

Receptacle,  135. 

Red  Algae,  22-24,  s  8-9. 

Red  Flowers,   197,   198.     See  also  i 
Humming  Birds. 

Red-Hot  Poker,  164. 

Red  Pigment,  2?,  s  8,  17,  41,  59. 

Red  Poppy,  112. 

Redwood,  109,  161,  s  99. 

Reindeer  Moss,  54. 

Reproduction,  21, 22,  51-59,  85-87,  s 
6,  9-10,  29,  31,  33,  41-44,  50. 

Resin  Weed,  s  89. 

Respiration,  s,  5,  15,  22. 

Resurrection  Plant,  s  48. 

Rhamnus,  s  65. 

Rhododendron,  181,  s  113,  120. 

Rhubarb,  174,  s  no. 

Rhus,  177,  s  64,  112. 

Ribes,  s  40,  64. 

Rice,  168,  s  ro6. 

Ricinus,  s  127.  See  also  Castor-Oil 
Plant. 

Richardia,  s    104.     See  also  Calla. 

Roble,  s  108. 

Rock  Fern,  72.      See    also    Poly- 
podium. 

Rockweed,  21,  22,  s  8. 

Rolled  Leaves,  s  24. 

Romneya,  567. 

Root,  32,  34-35,  s  14-16. 

Root-Hairs,  34-35,  s  14-15. 

Root  Pressure,  s  18. 

Roots,  Pulling,  s  53. 

Rootstock,  65-68,  Fig.  22,  p.  65,  s 
54.     See  also  Storehouses. 

Root-Tips,  34-35,  s  14-16. 


Rosacese  (Rose  Family);  179,  180, 

s  62,  113,  116. 
Rose,  179,  180,  s  87,  121. 
Rose  Bay,  s  113. 
Rose  Hip,  s  113. 
Rosemary,  s  114. 
Rosewood,  s  113. 
Rubiaceae,  s  115. 
Rubus,  see  Blackberry. 
Rumex,  s  126. 

Rushes,  162,  164,  170,  s  103. 
Russian  Thistle,  211,  s  23,  no. 
Rust,  53,  s  31,  32. 
Rye,  s  1 06. 

Sage,  146-150,  191,  Fig.  57,  p.  149. 

Sage-Brush,  44,  68,  s  25,  93. 

Sago  Palm,  s  105. 

Salix,  see  Willow. 

Salsify,  s  94. 

Salvia,  146-148,  Fig.  56,  p.  147,  s86. 

See  also  Chia. 
Sambucus,  s  61. 
Sand  Ivupine,  201,  207. 
Sand  Spurry,  s  no. 
Sand  Verbena,  s  no. 
Sanicle    (Sanicula),   s  75,   95,    96, 

123. 

Sap,  37,  s  17. 
Sap,  Conduction  of,  s  58. 
Saprophytes,  51-60,  198,  s  107,  113, 

120.     See  also  Fungi. 
Sarcodes,    s   120.     See   also  Snow 

Plant. 

Sassafras,  175.  s  in. 
Satin  Bell,  123,  Fig.  48,  p.  124. 
Saxifrage,  178,  198,  s  75, 120 
Scaly  Fern,  80. 
Scarlet  Flowers,    19,   198,  s  51-52' 

See  also  Humming  Birds. 
Scarlet  Poppy  s  67. 
Scouring  Rush,  83,  Fig.  29,  p.  82,  s 

47- 


INDEX 


Scrophularia,  s  52,  85. 

Scrophulariaceae,  s  83-85. 

Scrub  Oak,  s  65. 

Scutellaria  s  75,  86. 

Sea-Lettuce,  s  8. 

Sea-Mosses,  21-24,  s  7-10. 

Sedum,  42,  44,  178,  s  20,  118. 

Seed,  1 60. 

Seed  Distribution,  25,    27,  60,   62, 

97,   102,    104,    105,  122,  129,  135- 

137,   154,   155,    159,  170,  180, 188, 

189,  203,  210,  211,  s  ii,  53,  54,  59. 

60-63,  67,  72,  74,  78,  80, 81,  87,  91, 

92,  95,  96,  106,  107,  no,  126,  127. 
Seed-Leaves,    27-34,    61.     See  also 

Cotyledons. 
Seedlings,   25-38,  61,  193,  Fig.  20, 

p.  62,  s  11-19. 
Seed-Making,  87. 
Seed  Protection,    25,   27.    See  also 

Seed  Distribution. 
Sedges,  168,  170. 
Selaginella,  s  43,  44,  48. 
Senecio,  s   22,  76,  91. 
Sepal,  Definition  of,  87,  s  49. 
Sequoia,  161,  s6i,  99.   See  also  "Big 

Tree"  and  Redwood. 
Service  Berry,  s  113. 
Sheep  and  Plants,  201,  203,  s  22. 
Shelf  Fungus,  57,   59,    Fig.   19,  p. 

58,  s  35,  36. 
Shepherd's  Purse,    175,    202,  s  68, 

125. 

Shield  Fern,  81,  Fig.  28,  p.  78,  s  46. 
Shooting  Star,    95,    97,    181,     198, 

Fig.  35,  P-  96,  s  54. 
Shrubs,  108,  109,  177,  s  64,  65. 
Shrubby  Mimulus,  138,  139. 
Silene,  194,  Fig.    70,  p.    195,  s  no, 

119,  125.     See  also  Indian  Pink. 
Silver- Back  Fern,  77,  s  46. 
Silver  Fir,  s  100. 


Sisyrinchium,  164,  Fig.  61,  p.  165 
s  76,  123.  See  also  Blue-Eyed 
Grass. 

Skin,  see  Epidermis. 

Skull-Cap,  s  75,  86. 

Skunk-Cabbage,  s  104. 

Skunkweed,  207,  s  126. 

"Sleeping"  Positions,  64,  s  38,  39. 

"Smilax,"  (Myrsiphyllum),  164,5 
101,  121. 

Smut,  53,  s  31. 

Snapdragon  (Mimulus  luteus),  138, 
s  21. 

Snapdragon  (Antirrhinum),  585. 

Snow- Berry,  s  65,  115. 

Snow  Plant,  51,  181, 198,  s  120. 

Soap-Root,  64,  66,  164,  183,  184, 
Fig.  22,  p.  65,  s  39,  116. 

Solanum  Douglasii,  123,  Fig.  47, 
p.  122,  s  21,  73,  114.  See  also 
Nightshade. 

Solanaceae,  s  69,  73,  113. 

Soldanella,  s  120. 

Solidago,  s  25,  90. 

Solitary  Flowers,  s  96. 

Sonchus,  s  96.  See  also  Sow- 
Thistle. 

Sorghum,  s  106. 

South  America,  164,  179,  s  115. 

Sow- Thistle,  202,  210,  211,  Fig.  73, 
p.  209,  s  94. 

Spadiciflorae,  s  104. 

Spanish  Bayonet,  see  Yucca. 

Spanish  Moss,  s  103. 

Spanish  Needle,  202,  210,  s  92. 

Species,  s  87. 

Speedwell,  s  85. 

Spergula,  s  125. 

Spermaphyte,  s  42. 

Spermatozoids,  s  42,  45. 

Sperm  Cells,  s  10,  50. 

Spinach,  s  no. 


INDEX 


Spirogyra,  s  6. 

Spore,  53,  57,  59,  83,  160,  s  6,  7,  31, 

32,  33,  42,  44,  45,  47,  48. 
Spore-Case  (Sporangia),  74-84,  Fig, 

30,  p.  84,  s  45-47. 
Spore  Distribution,  s  45. 
Spore  Fruit,  s  io,.32,  33,  34. 
Sporophyte,  s  42. 
Spurry,  s  125. 

Squash,  29,  31,  Fig.  7,  p.  30. 
Stachys,  s  86. 
Squirrels  and  Seeds,  27. 
Stamen,  Definition  of,  87,  s  49. 
Starch,  19,  38,  s  5,  6,  18,  19. 
Star  Thistle,  210,  Fig.    72,    p.    206, 

s  94,  125. 
Star  Tulip,  s  74. 

Stellaria,  s  55, 125.  See  also  Chick- 
weed. 

Stem  Structure,  s  58. 
Stephanomeria,  s  25. 
Stipelia,  s  114. 
Stigma,  Definition  of,  87. 
Stink-Horn  Fungus,  s  36. 
Stipa,  s  1 06. 
Stipules  (Pair  of  organs  at  base  of 

leaf  stem),  s  59 
Stomata,  36,  37,  42,  43,  Fig    10,  p. 

56,  s  17,  23. 
Storehouse,   Underground,  39,  64- 

68,  72-85,    89,    93,    97,  no,   183, 

Fig.  22,  p.  65. 
Stramonium,  s  73. 
Strawberry,  179,  180,  s  62. 
Strychnine,  s  114. 
Style,  Definition  of,  92. 
Sugar  Beet,  s  no. 
Sugar  Cane,  168,  s  106. 
Sugar  Pine,  s  100. 
Sumac,  177,  s  64. 
Sumatra.  60,  s  104. 
Summer  Flowers,  183-199. 


Summer  Plants,  39-50,  196-199. 
Sundew,  176,  s  in,  112. 
Sunflower,    44,    151-154,    201,    208, 

Fig.  58,  p.  152,  S9E,  96. 
Superior  Ovary,  163. 
Sweet  Alyssum,  175,  s  68. 
Sweet  Flag,  s  104. 
Sweet  Potato,  s  114. 
Switch  Plants,  s  24. 
Sword  Fern,  81,  Fig.  28,  p.  78 
Sycamore,  71,  104,   172,  Fig.  38,  p 

103,  s  28,  41,  57,  59,  60. 
Sympetalae,  s  113. 
Symphoricarpus,  s  65. 

Talipot  Palm,  s  104,  105. 

Tan-Bark  Oak,  s  108. 

Tansy,  393. 

Tapioca,  178. 

Tar- Weed,  42,  44,  197,   201,   207,  s 

25,  89,  92. 

Taste  of  Plants,  41,  68,  s  22. 
Tea  Plant,  176,  s  112. 
Teasel,  s  114. 
Tellima,  s  75. 
Tendril,  s  122. 
Thistle,  151,  155,    182,  Fig.   59,   p. 

156,  393. 

Thistle-leaved  Salvia,  146,  148. 
Thrips,  92. 
Thysanocarpus,  s  68. 
Thyme,  s  114. 

Tid'y-Tips,  151,  154,  s  75,  91,  125. 
Tiger  Lily,  163. 
Toad-Stool,  57-59,  Fig.  19,  p.  58,  s 

34-35- 

Tobacco,  s  73,  113. 
Tocalote,  210. 
Tomato,  s  73,  113. 
Topping  Trees,  s  57. 
Tradescantia,  s  104. 
Transpiration,  s  14,  23. 


INDEX 


Transpiration   Current,   37,  42,  43, 

75-77,  s  18. 
Tree  Mallow,  s  65. 
Tree  Poppy,  112,  108,  s  66,  67. 
Trees,  70-71,  100-109,  s  57-62. 
Trees  and  Rain,  98. 
Trees  in  Autumn,  s  23,  27-28. 
Tree  Tobacco,  211,  s  73,  127. 
Trichostema,  207,  Fig.    15,  p.   49» 

Fig.  16,  p.  50,  s  26,  86.     See  also 

Blue  Curls. 
Trifolium,  s  78,  79. 
Tropseolum,  s  81,  82. 
Tropical    Vegetation,    59,    60,    83, 

84,  168,  170,   174,   176,   177,   179, 

s  45,  46,  109,  in,  112,  115. 
Tropidocarpum.  s  125. 
Tubercles  on  Roots,  s  30. 
Tule,  162,  170. 
Tulip,  164,  s  101. 
Tumble-Weed,  202,  s  no,  126. 
Tuna  Cactus,  189-191,  Fig.   67,    p. 

190,  s  117. 
Turkey-Weed,    46,    47,     177,    197, 

201,  207,  Fig.  14,  p.  47,  s  22,  25, 

120.     See  also  Trichostema. 
Turnip,  175,  176,  200,  s  68. 

Ulva,  s  8. 

Umbelliferae,     155-158,     178,     207, 

Fig.  22,  p.  65,  Fig.  60,  p.  158,  s 

39,  75,  94,  95,  123. 
Umbellularia,  sin.     See  also  Bay. 
Underground  Stem ,  see  Storehouse. 
Upas,  s  109. 

Varnish  on  Leaves,  s  26. 
Venus'  Fly-Trap,  s  in. 
Venus- Hair  Fern,  s  46. 
Verbascum,  s  85. 
Verbena,  174,  s  114. 
Verbenacese,  383,  114. 


Veronica,  s  85. 

Vertical  Leaves,  43,  s  23. 

Vetches,  s  79. 

Vicia,  s  79. 

Victoria  Regia,  sin. 

Violet  (Viola),  93-95,  97,   175,   198, 

Fi^  34,  p.  94,  354,  in. 
Virginia  Creeper,  177. 
Viscid  (Sticky),  s  26. 

Wall- Barley,  204,  205. 
Wall-Flower,  Western,  s  68. 
Walnut,  31,    105,    172,  Fig.    38,   p. 

103,  s  13,  59,  co,  108. 
Wandering  Jew,  s  104. 
Washingtonia,  s  104. 
Wasps,  107,  s  63.  85. 
Water  Cress,  175,  207,  s  21,  68,  124. 
Water  Fern,  s  47. 
Water  Fennel,  s  6. 
Water  Hyacinth,  207. 
Water  Lily,  176,  s  in. 
Water-Net,  17-21,  Fig.  i,  p.  18,  s  3. 
Water,  Uses  to  Plants,  39,  42,  s  20. 

See  also  Transpiration  Current. 
Wax  Palm,  s  105. 
Wax  Plant,  s  114. 
Weaving  Plants,  s  41. 
Weeds,  174,  199,  200-211,  s  21,  27, 

123-127. 

West  Indies,  174. 
Wheat,  38,  162,  168,  Fig.  9,  p.  23,  s 

14,  106. 

Whispering  Bells,  371. 
White  Forget-me-not,     121,     Fig. 

46,  p.  120. 
White  Poppies,  112. 
White  Sage,  146-150. 
Wild  Cherry,  Wild  Grape,  etc.,  see 

Cherry,  Grape,  etc. 
Willow.  40,  71,   100-104,   172,  Fig. 

37,  p.  101,  841,  59,  108. 


INDEX 


Wind   Pollination,    102,    104,   105, 

107,  108,  168,  169,  177,  s  50,  60, 

61,  126,  127. 

Winter  Plants,  61-71,  s  37-41. 
Woodwardia,   80,   81,    Fig.    28,  p. 

78,  s  46. 
Woody  Strands,  35,  37,  72, 162,  172, 

177,  s  17,  47,  58,  101. 
Woolly -Back  Fern,  80,  s  46. 
Woolly  Breeches,   s  72.      See  also 

Amsinckia. 
Wormwood,  s  25,  93. 

Xanthium,  s  91,  95. 

Yarrow,  s  92. 

Yeast  Plants,  52,  s  30. 


Yellow  Forget-me-not,  or  Helio- 
trope, 121,  122,  201,  207,  s  72, 
124,  125.  See  also  Forget-me- 
not  and  Amsinckia. 

Yellow  Mats,  s  75,  95. 

Yellow  Pine,  s  100. 

Yerba  Buena,  s  86. 

Yerba  Mansa,  207,  s  109, 124. 

Yerba  Santa,  s  72. 

Yucca,  162-166,  Fig.  62,  p.  167,  s  24, 
102-103.  See  also  Frontispiece. 

Zauschneria,  Fig.  15,  p.  49,  s  26,  52. 

See  also  Fuchsia,  Wild. 
Zoospore,  s  7. 
Zygnema,  s  6. 
Zygadenus,  s  56. 


ERRATA  FOR  SUPPLEflENT. 


Page  8,  line  17  ;  for  Neyreocystic,  read  Nereocystis. 

Page  8,  line  20 ;  for  Algae,  read  Alga. 

Page  8,  last  line  ;  for  florescence,  read  fluorescence. 

Page  21,  line  4,  for  knot-grass,  read  knotweed. 

Page  21,  line  19  ;  omit  the  word  "  first." 

Page  21,  fourth  line  from  bottom  ;  for  nigraum,  read  nigrum. 

Page  21,  third  line  from  botton  ;  substitute  comma  for  semi-colon 
after  oak. 

Page  24,  line  4  ;  insert  comma  after  drought  and  omit  it  after  parts. 

Page  25,  line  16  ;  for  Malacothriz  read  Malacothrix . 

Page  25,  line  27  ;  for  Helianthemum,  read  Helianthus. 

Page  26,  lines  10  and  16  ;  for  basis  read  bases. 

Page  27,  line  5  ;  for  prevail,  read  prevails. 

Page  32,  tenth  line  from  bottom ;  for  the  fields,  read  these  fields. 

Page  33,  line  27  ;  for  spores,  read  spore-fruits. 

Page  46,  line  4  ;  for  Gynmnogramme,  read  Gymnogramme. 

Page  58,  line  12  ;  for  annular,  read  annual. 

Page  66,  line  7  ;  for  copo,  read  copa. 

Page  66,  fifth  line  from  bottom;  for  Echscholtzias,  read  Eschscholtzia. 

Page  67,  line  15  ;  for  Eshscholtzia,  read  Eschscholtzia. 

Page  70,  eleventh  line  from   bottom,  for  chapparal,  read  chaparral. 

Page  76,  third  line  from  bottom  ;  for  Fig.  6;  also  Fig.  2,  read  Fig. 
61  ;  also  Fig.  22. 

Page  80,  line  23  ;  for  chapparal,  read  chaparral. 

Page  8r.  last  line,  for  Tropaeolium,  read  Tropseolum. 

Page  101,  line  29  ;  for  Mersiphyllum  read  Myrsiplyllum. 

Page  112,  line  25  ;  for  Hemispheres,  read  Hemisphere. 

Page  114,  line  3  ;  omit  small. 

Page  124,  line  7  ;  for  Elodia  read  Elodea. 

Borraginaceae  is  twice  written  with  one  "r,"  a  spelling  authorized  by 
the  Century  Dictionary,  but  the  author  had  intended  to  use  the  more 
common  spelling  with  two  "  r  "s. 

Foot-hill  has  several  times  crept  in  without  its  hyphen,  and  there 
are  other  errors  and  inconsistencies  in  the  use  of  hyphens  and  commas 
that  the  author  regrets,  but  does  not  consider  necessary  to  enumerate. 


OF  THB 

UNIVERSITY  1 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


JUL  26  1915 


AUS  1  1917 
JAN  25  1921 


4  1953  U) 


JAN  U  130G  9  1 
REC'D 

OEC21'65-2PM 

LOAN  DEPT. 


